Does Mathematics Education need a re-think?

Once upon a time Mathematics was easy to teach. A typical lesson would begin with a direction towards a particular page of the text book and would conclude with the ceremonial marking of the answers. This process was repeated over and over, year after year and in the end students would be able to repeat the required method with a satisfactory degree of accuracy. Understanding was not a requirement and as such the teacher needed to know only a little more than the student or perhaps only have ready access to the answer page. But times change and today Mathematics is an area of study that requires a deeper level of understanding from both the student and the teacher. This change is the result of numerous factors each demanding a rethink of our pedagogy for mathematics and has led to calls for specialist teachers and professional development for teachers of mathematics in Primary schools.

Increasingly Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) are viewed as focus areas for national growth and the emergence of an innovation driven economy. Most recently in response to the Australian Federal Government’s ‘Innovation & Science Agenda’ the Office of the Chief Scientist released a paper that specifically calls for enhanced teaching in Mathematics. 'Mathematics is central. Student success in STEM is dependent upon an understanding of mathematics and the ability to apply it.’ (OCS 2015 p4) This paper points to research that shows teacher education candidates have ‘either a poor mathematical background, or significant gaps in their mathematical knowledge’ and 'displayed significant levels of ‘mathematics anxiety’ (OCS 2015 p3). This finding is backed by primary principals who report 51% of graduates ‘could not teach mathematics to a reasonable level’ (OCS 2015 p4). While at a secondary level students encounter specialists in Mathematics and Science, research shows that students make choices about their career pathway during their primary years (Broadley 2015). The lack of exposure to teachers who are confident in the delivery of Mathematics education or who are not passionate about the subject is likely to hamper continued study in STEM fields. Beliefs about the level of ability required to cope with Mathematics or STEM courses at more advanced levels of study plays a role here and anxiety about the content is transferred from teacher to student (McDonagh & Ferguson 2015). 

In response to this deficit the Office of the Chief Scientist (2015) calls for a three pronged attack; increase the prestige of teachers by lifting entry requirements for teacher education along with the provision of specialist teacher support and enhanced professional development programmes for pre-service and existing teachers. The report looks to the practice of high performing systems such as Singapore that provides 100 hours of professional development to its teachers every year. Importantly the report identifies the role for Principals in driving STEM innovation; ‘Change begins at the top, requiring an understanding from principals that STEM is vital; that teachers require time to master it, and to collaborate; and that progress can be achieved and ought to be expected through a whole-of-school approach.’ Such commitment to change needs to be built upon a clear understanding of what quality age appropriate pedagogy for STEM and in particular Mathematics is and within existing systems this knowledge is rare. While teaching in Science, Technology and Engineering may be largely absent from Primary Schools, Mathematics teaching is well entrenched and occupies a significant part of any school’s timetabled learning. Bringing about change in the practices utilised will require a shift in thinking about the nature of mathematics not just more of the same. In many instances our current approach to mathematics is deeply flawed. 

One critic of existing mathematics education is Conrad Wolfram the founder of Wolfram Research Europe and brother of Stephen Wolfram, maker of Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha. It is a family with maths running through its veins. Conrad identifies a problem in how we teach mathematics 'Those learning it think it's disconnected, uninteresting and hard. Those trying to employ them think they don't know enough. Governments realize that it's a big deal for our economies, but don't know how to fix it. And teachers are also frustrated'. (Wolfram 2010) The problem comes from the underlying beliefs about what mathematics education should be about and the disconnect between this and maths outside of schools. Mathematics education in schools is comprised of 'dumbed-down problems, lots of calculating, mostly by hand.’ (Wolfram 2010) In the real world according to Wolfram maths is very popular but it is used by people for a purpose, not pure mathematics and not the calculation heavy model of schools. The short answer is to move away from a desire to make the simple aspects of mathematics hard by preventing the use of tools that do this part of mathematics very well. Teach a mathematics that leverages the power of computers and in doing so shift the focus onto the mathematical thinking that is essential for deep understanding and real world applications. As Wolfram puts it 'Stop teaching calculating. Start teaching math’. (Wolfram 2010)

What this means is that we should be spending more time on developing the ability to ask mathematical questions, more time on checking that a mathematical solution is viable and relevant to the problem and then spending more time on making sense of the answer. Between the asking of mathematical questions and making sense of the result lies calculations but Wolfram is emphatic that this step should not occupy the 80% of maths learning presently devoted to it. The use of computers and calculators in mathematics education has always been contentious. Most students of mathematics will at some point argue that they should be permitted to use calculators in their lessons. Hand calculation is believed to enhance the recall and understanding of mathematical concepts but perhaps we are focusing on the wrong concepts. Empowered by computers and calculators we should expect students to engage effectively with Mathematics at a deeper level with greater levels of real world application than is enabled by repetition of algorithms or manipulations of arcane formulae. To what end do we labour table-facts at the expense of engagement with a mathematics that is genuinely relevant and of use within a STEM context?

Beyond shifting our focus from teaching calculations to teaching maths is a world of new possibilities for the learning of mathematics through emerging technology. Mathematics is essential to STEM as it plays a role in all disciplines but it is in the integration of mathematical learning with the other disciplines that new opportunities emerge. Taking mathematical thinking and combining it with robotics, computer coding and engineering brings new layers of meaning and engagement. A child solving a problem within a robotics project will be forced to apply mathematical thinking but is unlikely to identify the task as boring or irrelevant as it is immediately relevant to the task. An example of this can be seen when students are given the task of programming a SPHERO robot. SPHERO is a small acrylic ball that uses a combination of motors and gyros to move from place to place. It can be controlled directly from a smart-phone or programmed to follow coded instructions. An engaging challenge for students that SPHERO makes possible is programing it to complete a maze. This engages students in calculations of speed, distance, time, angles and acceleration. The device provides immediate feedback and students are able to quickly test multiple iterations of their code. In a collaborative environment ideas and learning are shared and students quickly fine tune their programmes.

Increasingly schools are experimenting with ‘Making’ and with this, further opportunities for mathematical thinking emerge. Through projects that incorporate traditional timber crafts, 3D printing, small scale manufacturing, electronics and computing the world of making presents boundless new challenges for educators. In this sort of environment mathematical learning is one of the tools to be mastered and its relevance is inescapable. This is the sort of environment that all students need access to but it is an environment that is still uncommon in Primary schools and one that challenges teacher abilities. As schools begin to pursue new options in this sphere great care must be taken to support teachers as they move their teaching into these new domains. Without the relevant pedagogical content knowledge ‘Makerspaces' are likely to be little more than extra-curricular add-ons with only tenuous connections to the real curriculum.

What is needed is an ongoing conversation around what Mathematics education could and should look like. Conrad Wolfram poses questions about the teaching of Mathematics that should be considered in this conversation; 'Why are we teaching people math? What's the point of teaching people math? And in particular, why are we teaching them math in general?’ In seeking answers to these questions we may better understand what it is about Mathematics that makes it worth learning and with that answer in mind a clear vision for what it means to 'learn' mathematics might emerge.  

by Nigel Coutts

Kate Broadley (2015) Entrenched gendered pathways in science, technology, engineering and mathematics: Engaging girls through collaborative career development Australian Journal of Career Development Vol 24 (1) 27-38

McDonagh, M. & Ferguson, T. (2015) Accenture finds more than half of 12-year-old girls in the UK and Ireland believe STEM subjects are too difficult to learn. Accenture Accessed online 1.11.2015 

Roslyn Prinsley and Ewan Johnston (2015) Transforming STEM Teaching In Australian Primary Schools - Office of the Chief Scientist 

Conrad Wolfram (2010) Teaching kids real maths with computers. TED Talk

The Joy of Teaching

For teachers in Australia the year is drawing rapidly to a close. It is a time for packing away classrooms, taking down displays of student learning and saying farewell to students as they move on to new classes. It is also a time for reflecting on the journey that has led to this point and the adventures that have occurred along the way. This annual cycle of endings and new beginnings is one of the unique aspects of teaching; one of the many opportunities and challenges that make teaching somewhat different to other professions.

To the general public the appeal of teaching is too often simplified to the benefits of the vacation time available. To teachers these days are understood as the much needed time to recover from a performance schedule that places great demands on our mental and physical resources. Each day in classrooms across the world teachers are doing their act, performing for their audience and using their understanding of pedagogy and curriculum to provide learning experiences that meet the needs of every student. At the ending of one year it is worth taking a moment to ponder what is so remarkable about teaching as a profession.

The new year will bring with it a new beginning, with new students and families to know and understand. It will bring with it patterns that are well versed around programmes that have survived the yearly review, events such as camps and routines of meetings and interviews. We begin the uphill climb again with new students and some new turnings along the way. The path to the top is never quite the same but we pass familiar places along the way. This mix of the familiar with the ever changing nature of teaching and learning ensures boredom in the role of teaching is easily avoided. Meeting the unique set of challenges our students bring with them, forces us to continually invent new solutions. Change is an inevitable part of teaching.

Beyond the changes that each new set of students bring with them comes the opportunities for change that new technologies and teaching methods bring. The affordances of technology bring new opportunities and effective teachers and schools will strive to evaluate the options as they emerge and integrate those with the greatest promise. The challenge is to pick the real gems from the assortment of shiny new options that are quickly found to be lacking real merit. Education’s rapid embrace of fads is well noted and yet difficult to avoid. Some emerging trends are showing great promise but require a significant shift in how we engage our students. Shifts towards STEM or STEAM bring challenges to our pedagogical content knowledge and our operational structures. For many the ongoing roll out of the National Curriculum brings another set of challenges as we interpret the new outcomes and blend these with our existing practice.

Each year also seems to bring a more detailed and scientifically based understanding of how we learn. This expanding science of learning informed by MRI based brain research is changing our view of intelligence and revealing brains that possess a potential for change and malleability that we previously felt was not possible. This brings a need to shift our thinking about what intelligence is and how we may facilitate the greatest success of all our students. Integrating this research with understandings of leaners uncovered in the classroom presents new challenges for teachers and ensures there is always something new to explore.

New students, new methods, new technologies and new understandings mean teaching is a career that should never be routine. While a few teachers cling to their long favoured programmes and methods with unwavering commitment such behaviour is increasingly uncommon. Evolution, revolution and innovation is increasingly the norm. A key driver of this is the spirit of collegiality and sharing that is such an essential element of the profession. Teachers have always loved talking about teaching; just ask the non-teacher friends who get stuck at social events amidst a group of teachers. This collegiality has gained a boost from social networks such as Twitter and FaceBook. Social networking has made it possible to build connections with teachers at a global scale and ensures ideas spread alongside meaningful evaluations of what works and does not. The image of an isolated teacher alone with a class should exist no more as we make connections and share our experiences.

Every job brings with it elements we wish we could spend less time on and teaching is not immune. It is a profession under a public spotlight with a role to play within politics and in the shaping of society. Our schools and our teaching plays an important part in creating the future and preserving the past. Accountability and external control are inescapable elements of the education landscape. How we respond to these pressures and the manner in which we frame our profession requires care and vision. If the shape of education is to be determined by teachers and not the whim of politicians then we must more effectively communicate how we may best meet the needs of all stakeholders.

While change is unavoidable the most rewarding aspect of education as a profession seems to remain constant. As a group teachers are a wonderful set of people to spend time with. Maybe it is linked to the factors that bring us to the profession in the first part, that desire to help others to improve. Maybe it is the shared experience that comes from the challenges we face in the classroom. The heart of every school is its people and it is the communal spirit and common purpose that unites us as a profession.

Looking back at the end of the year allows for reflection on the greatest reward teaching brings. Across the year our students transform in front of our eyes and while the day to day change is too small to notice the cumulative effect from the start of the year to the end is plain to see. Few professions allow you to play such a significant role in the growth and development of an individual as teaching does. Our efforts directly influence the direction our students will take, the futures they will live and the ideals they will value. Those moments when you are able to see the influence you have had are the most valuable and the ones that bring us back each year with fresh enthusiasm.

What does intelligence look like?

How might we define intelligence? What do we mean when we speak of intelligence and what evidence do we seek when we look for it? Is it a singular, fixed attribute determined at birth or does it vary across time and environment? These are questions educators have struggled with for years and thanks to improvements in brain science are questions that today can be given more complete answers. But away from the world of high-tech laboratory research and MRI analysis or neural patterns what evidence of intelligence is seen by teachers and what does this tell us about how our students learn and how we may maximise their potential?

For much of its history schooling has been obsessed with one type of intelligence as evidenced by what is given time within the learning day and that which is the focus of assessment. Indeed, pedagogy, curriculum and assessment within schools has delivered a clear and consistent message about what constitutes intelligence. Knowledge, defined as the recall of information, literacy, defined as the ability to read and write and numeracy, defined as the ability to calculate, have formed the pillars of educational systems and have both framed and been framed by our view of intelligence. Further that which is worth knowing has been determined by cultural and socially constructed beliefs that value particular knowledge over others. This introduces a whole debate about the social construction of curriculum as a tool of power and control that is beyond the focus of this posting. The result of such a narrow definition of intelligence is that it has benefitted those who fit the definition and disadvantaged those who do not. Some examples from the classroom make this point clear.

Recently our Year Six students have been completing their 'Genius Hour’ projects. As is the norm for this style of project students have imagined and implemented their own projects centred on areas of personal interest. The diversity of projects as been immense and the results displayed at the final ‘Gallery Walk’ were impressive. Throughout the span of this project we noticed that some of our more ‘traditionally' capable students were struggling while others who found routine academic tasks difficult, were shining. We saw that students who thrived in an environment of direct teacher instruction concluding in a summative assessment task lacked the resilience to independently problem solve towards a solution. Meanwhile the physical dimensions of many of the projects combined with inherently immediate feedback of what works and does not work suited others who would switch off in traditional lessons. Undaunted by failures and mistakes some of the students rose to the challenge and overcame obstacles while others looked for external assistance, direction and affirmation. It was clear that for many of the ‘Genius Hour’ projects 'traditional intelligence' was neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for success.

The same can be seen on the sporting field. I recall coaching a Soccer team some years ago in which, as is often the case, one player stood out from the rest. This particular year we had an unusually strong team and many of our games were won by a large margin and yet this boy rose above what was clearly a talented group. It was more than his skill with the ball but his ability to read the play many moves ahead and then use that understanding to control the flow of the game. They say good players don’t go where the ball is, they go where it will be. This boy went a step further and through his action dictated where the ball would go so his team could capitalise on the evolving play. In class he struggled to keep up. His results on assessments were never great and on traditional measures his intelligence was low. However, if you analyse the complexity of manipulating to your advantage a field of twenty-two players, a ball, a referee, a complex set of rules and varying pitch conditions you must conclude that this boy was demonstrating a high level of intelligence. Just not the sort that matters in a typical school day.

For years now we have noticed a similar pattern during school camps. Those who seem to do the best while learning in the outdoors are not always those who do best in the classroom. It is more than just knowledge of camping skills but an intelligence that allows problems to be solved, group dynamics to be balanced and leadership to emerge. The performance differential for some between the week at camp and the week before at school can be immense. You have to wonder how impressive these students learning might be if the environment they experienced on a daily basis was more like camp.

The same story can be told for our dancers, who like the young girl in Sir Ken Robinson’s story need to move while learning and find the confinements of desk and chair restrictive and limiting. We see it in students who demonstrate advanced learning in ICT but then go beyond having knowledge and assume a leadership role they would normally avoid when presented with the right environment. Through the use of video we have unlocked the story-telling potential of students who find writing difficult. With the use of iPads in mathematics we have uncovered layers of understanding previously hidden by a poor recall of multiplication tables. Through the use of ‘SketchNoting’ to share understandings of new concepts we are uncovering a deeper learning than was revealed by a traditional essay response and from students who we previously believed had missed the point.

In special education 'Universal Design for Learning’ (UDL) is seen as a way to allow students to achieve despite identified learning difficulties. If we see intelligence as a diverse domain that is variable and manipulable through modifications to the learning environment, the learning task and the mode of engagement, then UDL should be seen as the norm not the exception. Instead of a deterministic one-size fits all approach to education based on a singular model of intelligence, we should always be seeking ways to engage our learner’s potential and empower them to leverage and importantly expand their strengths.

If you want to develop a more complete understanding of intelligence and its changeability and variability read 'New Kinds of Smart: How the science of learnable intelligence is changing education' by Bill Lucas & Guy Claxton It will help you to see and value the many forms of intelligence that exist within your classroom.

By Nigel Coutts

Suggested Readings to Inspire Teaching

With the end of the year approaching and holidays looming for some now is the ideal time to share some suggestions for books and papers to read. A great book can provide the inspiration required to begin the new year positively and this list includes some of my favourites from 2015. In no particular order here is my list of top ten reads to inspire quality learning and promote discussion. 

1.    Future Wise: Educating our Children for a Changing World by David Perkins
How do you answer the 'uppity question’ from a student who wants to know why they need to learn what you are teaching? Do you reply that they need it to do well in the test or are you confident that it is learning they will need to do well in life? In this book Perkins examines what we teaching in schools and makes recommendations for a shift in focus. A key idea introduced early and unpacked throughout the book is the idea of ‘Life Worthy’; learning that is 'likely to matter in the lives learners are likely to live’. Future Wise is jargon free and a great book to share with colleagues, it will help you rethink what you spend time on in class and clarify how you see the role and purpose of education. 

2.    Who owns the learning? Preparing students for success in the digital age by Alan November
The title alone is worth pondering, ‘Who does own the learning?’ If the best learning occurs while the unit is being programmed, if the students have little say in the direction their learning takes then how are we preparing them for their learning futures. Alan has a solid understanding of the implications of technology for learning and combines this with student centred pedagogical approaches to describe a model of education that empowers young learners to take charge of their learning. For teachers the challenge is to get out of the way of the spectacular learning that their children are capable of. 

3.    Learning by Choice: 10 ways choice and differentiation create an engaged learning experience for every student by A.J. Juliani
Students appreciate choice just as much as adults do and are more likely to engage with the learning they choose. Inflexible curriculums full of content that is not personally meaningful is hard to sell to students but a ruler understanding of the purpose of the curriculum and a desire to include choice can transform this. Through the inclusion of passion projects, twenty-percent time and genius-hour teachers are giving students choice in their learning and the benefits are enhanced learning and highly engaged students. If you are looking to give your students choice then this book is the perfect starting point.
 

4.    The Smartest Kids in the World: and how they got that way by Amanda Ripley
Globalisation of education and the rise of international assessments such as PISA has lead to comparisons of national education systems. In this book Amanda Ripley investigates the experience American exchange students have learning in some of the worlds top-ranked educational systems. The experience they share reveals that the true nature of the success of these systems can not be found in the league tables. From South-Korea to Poland to Finland each system has particular advantages and disadvantages and there are no quick fixes to be found. Beyond the hype of global education leaders this book paints a more human story of schools around the world through the eyes of the students.
 

5.    Creative Schools: Revolutionising Education from the Ground Up by Ken Robinson and Lou Aronica
Sir Ken Robinson’s 2006 TED Talk has reached and inspired a global audience on a new scale for educators. It has inspired teachers to seek ways to educate that do not kill creativity but it has one missing piece, the how to element. In ‘Creative ‘Schools’ Robinson sets out to make the process of school transformation achievable in a practical manner. With advice and strategies ranging in scale from the classroom to the system this book is an ideal tool for any teacher inspired by Robinson’s speeches. 
 

6.    New Kinds of Smart: How the science of learnable intelligence is changing education by Bill Lucas & Guy Claxton
Intelligence is neither fixed or a unitary concept, it is changeable, learnable and varied. Understanding what this mens for education should have a profound effect on how we teach and how we see our student’s abilities. The book explains what intelligence is how, the varied forms it takes and offers practical advice on how new research can provide insights for how we learn. The authors deserve praise for the way they present complex material in such an accessible way that is entirely readable by time-poor teachers. 

7.    Reading the Visual: An introduction to teaching multimodal literacy by Frank Serafini
 We live in an increasingly visual world and this requires a new literacy that combines the various elements of the visual into a compoundable text. Serafini’s book is full of practical advice for teachers of visual literacy based on a clear understanding of how multimedia texts are constructed and are open to various readings. With a set of model units for teachers to follow the book is sure to enhance your teaching of Visual Literacy. 

8.    Creating Cultures of Thinking: The 8 forces we must master to truly transform our schools by Ron Ritchhart
In this book Ron Ritchhart outlines the eight cultural forces required for successful schools and the development of thinking cultures. Understanding get eight forces is the first step towards school wide transformation. For schools with an interest in 'Making Thinking Visible' or 'Habits of Mind’ the eight forces are an essential element that take these already effective strategies to a higher level where they can be fully embraced. 
 

9.    Rethinking National Curriculum Collaboration: Towards an Australian Curriculum by Prof. Alan Reid
If you are interested in knowing what the Australian Curriculum could have been like then you should read this report. It presents a view of curriculum in which the content is a vehicle for learning of broad skills and dispositions that are widely transferable. In this model students would learn twenty-first century skills through content. This shift away from content as the goal of teaching would have allowed a curriculum with flexibility to respond to local need and individual needs while ensuring that essential aspects of a long-life education where adequately addressed. Reid’s model provided us with the ‘General Capabilities’ of he present curriculum but shows how these could have been the essential ingredient of a modern curriculum. There are lessons here for anyone with an interest in curriculum design. 
 

10.    Mindset: How you can fulfil your potential by Carol Dweck
The notion of fixed vs growth mindsets has become a common feature in educational dialogue but the implications of this are not always fully understood. This book is essential reading for teachers looking to achieve the maximum benefit from Dweck’s ideas. Beyond the oversimplified explanations often shared this book takes you into the true nature of the mindsets and shows how the reality of their interactions and the potential for transforming one’s thinking is more complex. 

Also worth a look: 
1.    Creating innovators: The making of young people who will change the world by Tony Wagner
2.    Most Likely to Succeed: Preparing our kids for the innovation era by Tony Wagner & Ted Dintersmith
3.    Invent to Learn: making, Tinkering and Engineering in the Classroom by Sylvia Libow Martinez & Gary Stager
4.    Limits to self-organising systems of learning—the Kalikuppam experiment by Sugata Mitra & Ritu Dangwal

And something Different

5.    Elon Musk: Tesla, Space X and the Quest for a Fantastic Future by Ashlee Vance

by Nigel Coutts

Making as Problem Based Learning

Recently many of our Year Six students have been involved in projects that require them to utilise the brain of a maker. Facing challenges involving the exploration of how everyday objects are manufactured and while responding to their ‘Genius Hour’ ambitions they are facing a new set of problems and discovering the joy that comes from solving these with their hands as much as their brains.

The shift back towards a recognition of the importance of making is an interesting phenomenon to observe. Children have always enjoyed opportunities to make and through this explore ideas and solve problems. Today framed as a Maker Movement it is easy to forget this long tradition that led to the global success of companies such as Lego and Meccano. In part this movement comes from the emergence of new tools that elevate the options available to makers above what was previously possible into a realm of quasi-production. Digital tools, small-scale computers and open source software combined with 3D printers, laser cutters and CNC machines bring new options and exciting possibilities. However, even without the fancy new tools students can learn a great deal when they are offered opportunities to explore a makers mindset.

Seymour Papert, seen by many as the father of the modern Maker Movement, had it right when he wrote ‘The role of the teacher is to create the conditions for invention rather than provide ready-made knowledge’. This captures the nature of the challenge we have faced as a group of teachers in designing a project where students would explore every-day objects; we had no idea what they might choose or how they may interact with their items but the task certainly provided the conditions for invention. Our students were given the following instructions at the start of the unit:

Using a Collaborative Inquiry process you will analyse a product that you use and consider the many decisions and processes that went into creating that item. Having analysed your chosen products and shared your knowledge with an audience, you will apply a design thinking method to develop improved and enhanced designs based on the original product that demonstrates your understanding of product design.

With that we let the students at it and over the next few days they selected their products. We did set some conditions to avoid students wanting to disassemble expensive home-goods or anything potentially dangerous. In the end the ultimate challenge was to submit their modified designs to the manufacturers of the original item and this proved to be a significant motivator towards quality and carefully considered designs.

The diversity of products discussed as possible candidates was immense and we soon had many small groups of students collaborating around the tasks of disassembling their products and determining, from the clues they found combined with access to the internet, how the product might have been manufactured. This introduced some special moments for learning that present differently when a maker mindset is applied. None of us knew how to disassemble a padlock, how the eyes on a teddy bear were applied or the best way to access the innards of an alarm clock. Immediately it became obvious that both students and teachers were learning and problem solving together. Interactions between group members and teachers centred around ‘What if . . ?’ and ‘How might . . ?’ questions. Trial and error became the norm.

This was the point where the immediacy of feedback inherent to making tasks came to the fore. Imagine a strategy, test it, does it work? If not try a different strategy. This immediacy of feedback not from a teacher but from the task itself allows for rapid iteration and with no value judgement associated with the feedback fear of failure rapidly dissolves; either your plan works or it doesn’t. The second element that ensured success was that the students were highly engaged by the challenges they faced. They had been given choice in the articles they explored, choice in how they would explore the items and choice in how they would share their learning. They were working collaboratively with their classmates but also with their teachers. Realising your teacher is just as stuck as you are turned out to be a powerful motivator towards resilience.

A more extensive version of the process has occurred for many of the students as they work to complete their ‘Genius Hour’ projects. For this students have developed intricate plans linked to their personal passions and some of these have involved the design and construction of new products. We have a room full of seamstresses discovering a myriad of problems associated with the making of dresses, learning to think inside out and remembering clothing needs to come on and off. Other students have been shaping timber for skateboards and billy-carts. Solving the problems of steering and braking has led to a mix of novel solutions. Another student has decided to craft a set of shin-pads using a design that utilises foam embedded with in fiberglass to provide better protection. Many of these students are exploring tasks that their teachers have almost no experience with and as a result we are learning together. Our combined thinking skills have been challenged, we have had to think in new ways about the resources we have at our disposal and call on expertise from outside the classroom. Often the best solution has been one offered by the students as they dive into the challenge they have set for themselves. For the teachers one of the best parts of this unit has been the puzzled looks shared between all involved and then the joy when a plan shows signs of working.

When given opportunities to reflect on their learning the students have been overwhelmingly positive about the experience. Even when things have not worked for the most part they have remained resilient and enthused by their learning. They have risen to the challenge and now as we near the finish line are enjoying the fruits of their labours. We have all learned a great deal this semester and much more than how a padlock works, how to size a dress or how to mould fiberglass. The true learning has been linked to how we might approach new learning situations in the future, how we might solve problems we have never encountered before and that we can trust in our ability to cope when we are stuck. If as Jean Piaget claims 'Intelligence is what you use when you don't know what to do’ then we have all made good use of ours.

By Nigel Coutts

Ten ideas from Eye on the Future

On Saturday I had the opportunity to join a group of very enthusiastic teachers to hear Alan November and Carl Jarvis speak at North Turramurra Primary School. That so many educators from across Sydney were keen to give up a Saturday is a testament to their desire to improve their teaching but also a measure of the respect these speakers garner.

Alan November is the author of ‘Who owns the learning?’ a provocative book that encourages teachers to consider who they may best ensure their students are the ones doing the learning. Alan encourages a re-assessment of how we structure our classrooms and our lessons to place the student at the centre of what is happening rather than to continue in the model where the teacher plays the role of the sage on the stage. He points to the ways in which teachers inhibit student learning when we try to take control and prevent access to the powerful learning tools that all students should have access to. Carl Jarvis is a respected educator who has shown how a passionate leader can transform a school. His story of the transformation of a school from fifth worse to outstanding is compelling. Together this pair ensured a rewarding day of learning and chance to consider how we may enhance the learning that occurs in our classrooms. Here is a little taste of what was shared.

1. Our students need to be able to publish their ideas to real audiences - This was a recurring theme that was perhaps best illustrated by the example of Miller Wilson a boy from the Australian bush who was discovered thanks to his YouTube channel by Ellen DeGeneres. His latest video on catching eels has had over 200,000 views. The other amazing example of students using YouTube to share their learning with a real audience is mathtrain.tv a student created series of mathematical tutorials where the success of the content can be measured by the thousands of people viewing each video. 
2. There are amazing learning resources just waiting for you to find them - Harvard’s most popular course ‘Introduction to Computer Science’ for example is available online and free. edX offers course in a wide range of disciplines from Architecture to Law to Social Sciences and they are all free and online. This is just the tip of the iceberg of what is available and students in schools can and do make use of these courses. The question is how does your school’s computer science course measure up? How will you compete and why would you try?
3. Wolfram Alpha is a massively under utilised tool for learning - If you have not explored Wolfram Alpha with your students you really should. Not just for its amazing computational engines utility for mathematics but for how it brings a new level of analysis to all manner of learning. Try asking it to analyse ‘Romeo & Juliet’ just as an example of how a computer makes sense of a piece of literature in ways a human can’t. it brings a new perspective.
4. Prism brings collaborative interpretation of text to the classroom - Around the world right now countless students are reading texts and highlighting the parts they find interesting, the parts they don’t understand and the parts they might plagiarise later. Wouldn’t it be nice if you could make visible the highlighting of your entire class in a way that revealed what areas of the text gained the most attention. This is exactly what Prism does. You set it ups with the text and highlighting scheme for the class to use; maybe red for 'I don’t understand', orange for 'I think I get', green for ‘I understand'. Students read the text and use the highlight function to respond and then Prism shows you a colour coded word cloud where the frequency of highlights corresponds to the relative size of the words. - View Online
5. We are not very effective users of Google - How often do we type in a search term and then just use the top two or three results ignoring the 897,791 other options. Do we know how the results are generated or how reliable they are? Do we know how to refine our results so we are finding what we really want? Alan November encourages us to use Google to find the best information in the world and showed the audience how to do. One of the keys is using Googles sixteen operators to refine your search. Fortunately Google is keen to help its users become more effective and empowered users and as such provides guides - View Online
6. Learning is more important than knowing - How do you respond when confronted by a question that you don’t know the answer to? Do you see this as an opportunity for collaborative learning with the person asking the question? A chance to show that you are both teacher and learner? If we value learning more than we value teaching then the difficult question will never cause us fear. this approach can be extended to the use of technology and allow you to accept a students Minecraft project even if you don’t fully understand how they did it.
7. 78% of students don’t enjoy school - This is rather frightening statistic shared by Carl Jarvis. He adds that more testing is unlikely to change this figure. But learning is powerful motivating force in itself and humans do love to learn, it is what makes us human. So why don’t children enjoy schools? Does it have something to do with who owns the learning?
8. Use Twitter to share your classes learning with the world and to see how the world is learning - A class Twitter account allows you to connect with a mixture of school around the world and enables a shared learning experience for your students. The real power comes when your students ask you ton include the learning experiences they have seen other students enjoy through their online connection.
9. Six strategies for school transformation from Alan November:
   1. Teach web literacy in assignments
   2. Ask deeper questions and encourage and teach the students to do the same
   3. Use Making Thinking Visible
   4. Encourage authentic conversations
   5. Allow students to make a contribution - to the class and globally - knowledge construction
   6. Show students the best in the world - knowledge, ideas, learning
10. Be brave and confront change - Use your support network to help you confront change and help you push through your barriers. Change occurs at the point where you force your brain to create new connections and new pathways but fear stands in the way of this and it is too easy to return to your default position.

Thanks to the team at North Turramurra Primary School for a great day of learning and to Alan November and Carl Jarvis for their time and commitment to education.

By Nigel Coutts

Collaboration & Connectedness the Key to Quality Teaching

Most teachers recognise the potential for collaboration between students and the importance of it as a component of a 21st Century education and yet many do not take full advantage of the opportunities they have for collaboration as teachers. Others have found the benefits and willingly share ideas gathered from their personal learning network and contribute to Twitter chats and attend Teach Meets. For those who have discovered the possibilities that come from being a connected educator this story may help to affirm your participation, for those yet to join the discussion you may just find that spark that encourages your involvement.

Twelve months ago inspired by a course based on ‘Making Thinking Visible’ a group of teachers decided to use Twitter to share their journey towards a ‘culture of thinking’. An online chat was created to facilitate this using #cotchat to bring educators together and share stories of how visible thinking routines were used in their classroom. Over time this became a termly meeting of minds and after each session all those involved went back to their classrooms invigorated by new ideas. From this I have discovered new routines, refined my use of some old favourites and discovered ways to use thinking routines across disciplines based on the expertise of subject specialists. That this group was a mix of Senior School and Primary School teachers only acted to open new avenues for exploration. Those new to the use of thinking routines undoubtedly gained confidence from these chats and were able to have their questions answered.

Most recently cultures of thinking became the focal point for a Teach Meet and this provided an opportunity to meet face to face those with whom we have shared a year long learning journey. Teachers do love the opportunity to share stories from the classroom and thanks to the growing number of Teach Meets this is becoming easier. No longer is there a need to feel isolated within your classroom or even school.

During the most recent #cotchat discussion I floated the idea of having students draw what their thinking looks like. I had seen a similar method used years early when working with a group of teachers implementing a Middle School model. As a team building task we each drew our brains. It was an interesting way to share our thinking and feelings as we embarked on the adventure of creating a school within a school. More recently the idea of using drawings as a window into student thinking about the use of technology was encouraged by our IT coordinator. This was based on a paper by Walt Haney, Michael Russell and Damian Bebell of Boston College. The authors describe a long history of using student drawings within research and as evidence for analysing the effect of educational interventions. They conclude that using drawings can be a powerful tool for documenting and making visible student thinking and feelings. Such an idea fits well with visible thinking where the desire is to make visible the thinking of the students in diverse ways, recorded for future discussion and as a part of the assessment process. In visible thinking students will often use mindmaps, diagrams, notes or drawing to illustrate their understanding of a concept. In this instance I was looking to engage them in a metacognitive process of reflecting on how they think and learn. This was the seed of the idea but a piece was missing.

Teachers who have spent time online have probably encountered the sketch-noting skills of Sylvia Duckworth. Sylvia has a great skill for representing complex ideas in easily understood drawings that are at once comprehensible and beautiful to look at. This was the style of drawing I imagined would perfectly suit the task of students drawing their thinking and I shared this thought online. Thanks to the collaborative utility of Twitter this idea was spotted by Sylvia who most generously shared a slideshow she created as an introduction to sketch-noting. This all occurred in a matter of minutes and the next day I was armed with the resources I needed. That morning I shared the slideshow with my class, told them of how Sylvia used sketch-noting and how I wanted them to borrow ideas from the slideshow to share with me what their thinking or learning looked like. The results were so much more involved and revealing than I had expected and I am certain the students would not have been able to engage with the task as they did without the samples from Sylvia.

Impressed by the results I shared some samples online with the #cotchat community and by the end of the day was able to share Sylvia’s response with the class who were most excited to hear that their thinking had been seen by the teacher who had inspired their drawings.

This is in many ways a simple story of sharing an idea online, having it validated by colleagues and through that connection finding the right resource to make the idea happen. It fits into a bigger story of how we become a stronger profession when we connect and share our ideas. It shows the real benefits of collaboration and connectedness for our students and reveals how thanks to the tools made available by social networks it becomes possible to make real connections with teachers across the globe. It also reveals that even little ideas are worth sharing and hopefully encourages more teachers to share their little ideas so that others may benefit from the many great things happening in schools everywhere.

By Nigel Coutts with sketch-notes by the students of 6C

Ten reasons to teach thinking

The teaching of thinking is a critical endeavour for teachers and one that brings enhanced learning opportunities for students. Unfortunately thinking is not something that we naturally do well and as a consequence it is a skill we need to learn. Understanding this is the first step towards establishing a culture of thinking in your classroom but encouraging an entire school to get on board with this can be difficult and given our already crowded curriculum anything that seems to add to the load is likely to be resisted. Here then are ten arguments to use with colleagues, parents and most importantly students that might help you convince them of the need to learn how to think.

One

Normal education does not improve general reasoning - However; In programmes that target reasoning with specific elements, reasoning is improved - David Perkins

The best programmes are integrated with the standard curriculum, they are not an optional extra - Robert Swartz

Two

Teaching students what to do in the world, what to know, how to behave is EBNE - Excellent But Not Enough - Edward De Bono

Students require opportunities for:

• acquiring and integrating knowledge
• extending and refining knowledge
• using learning meaningfully

Robert Marzano

Three

What makes the good creative ideas stand out from the 3000 others, what do the creative people behind the good ideas have that others don’t:

• Curiosity
• Problem Solvers - This is the easy part
• Problem Finders - This is the part that differentiates them as it is finding the right problems (hard) and then solving it (easy) that means you have a chance of changing the world

Pick the right thing to do and then work hard

Ewan McIntosh

Four

Our lessons should always include Content + driven by the students finding the SO WHAT? - Now you know it SO WHAT? or Now you know it what are you going to do with it or about it?

The 'So What?' leads to student initiated inquiry out of the prescribed content and brings the students passions into the classroom and takes their learning into the world.

Guy Claxton & Lane Clark

Five

If nothing has changed in long term memory then nothing has been learned . . .

An instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long term memory; or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in, or retrieved from, long term memory is likely to be ineffective. (Sweller, 1988)

Understanding cognitive architecture allows us to better understand how we learn

Lane Clark

Six

Cognitive Load Theory

Three loads to consider in planning for learning:

• Intrinsic load - inherent intellectual complexity of the task, you can only reduce this so far without the task becoming meaningless
• Extrinsic load - how material is presented, environmental factors, modes of responding, you can make real differences here
• Germane load - motivation, interest, task relevance, buy-in. This is all about engagement and learning that matters to the learner - life worthy learning according to David Perkins author of 'Futurewise'

Three questions to ask that enhance learning:

• How can you decrease intrinsic load?
• How can you decrease extraneous load?
• How can you increase germane load?

Seven

Cultivating learning habits depends on:

• How you talk (what you name)
• What you notice (and ignore)
• What you display
• How you design activities
• How you design space
• How you assign time

A culture is a ‘nutrient medium’ for nurturing growth

Cultures of thinking are places in which a group’s collective, as well as individual thinking is valued, visible and actively promoted as part of the regular day-today experience of all group members

Guy Claxton

Eight

A Metalanguage of Learning

Successful schools create a common language for learning and thinking through a process of collaboration that involves students, teachers, parents and the community and is the foundation for metacognition - A shared language for talking about learning and thinking is an essential step in building a culture of thinking.

Nine

Students have impoverished models of what good thinking is like . . . therefore:

• We need to teach our students to think
• We need to teach our students how to think
• We need to teach our students to recognise the need for thinking 
• We need to empower their thinking with tools, strategies and scaffolds and overtime allow them to select the right tool for their thinking
• We need to ultimately produce students who can and who do think who have a disposition to quality thinking

Ten

Children who have become:

• resilient - have a growth mindset
• imaginative
• curious
• collegial
• and enthusiastic readers

fare better in life AND do better on the test

If we teach our children to think then they will do better on the test and they will do better in life.

by Nigel Coutts

Revisiting Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants

In 2001 Marc Prensky divided the world into two broad groups, Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants. His idea struck a chord with popular culture and has become a dominant paradigm in education. Since then the concept of Digital Natives vs Digital Immigrants has been widely discussed, debated and through this much of what was originally stated by Prensky has been misunderstood while other parts have been shown to not quite fit reality. Given the core concept remains a feature of educational dialogues it is worth re-visiting and seeing how the idea might evolve to better serve our needs and understandings of how people born after the internet, learn with and think about, technology. 

Core to the concept is the construction of a group of people termed Digital Natives, describing those who were born into a world of digital technologies. 'Our students today are all “native speakers” of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet.’ according to Prensky. This idea of young people being native speakers is essential, it impacts how they approach learning tasks, social interactions, multi-tasking, distractions and gratification of needs. This group of people take technology for granted and have expertise 'acquired and perfected through years of interaction and practice’. By comparison Digital Immigrants are those born prior to the widespread dissemination of digital technologies. They will at best come to see the affordances of this new technology but will as Marc describes retain an ‘accent’ that gives them away. This accent is seen in their propensity to utilise digital technology after trying other methods, of falling back on old ways of completing tasks and of relying on the habits from a pre-digital age. 

As with many ideas which may be simply stated Prensky’s world of ‘Digital Natives and Immigrants’ has been oversimplified and misunderstood. In part this is the danger that comes with relying upon a cultural metaphor and a consequence of society’s love affair with neat dichotomies. The reality of cultural groupings is always more complex than can be readily described and subcultural leanings and individual dispositions towards their cultural heritage significantly influence ones personal cultural narrative. A closer look at our Digital Natives and Immigrants reveals unsurprisingly a wide variety of narratives centred around engagement with technology and when applied to the classroom these narratives tell a story of how technology will fit with the learning that occurs. 

Perhaps the first story to be told is that our Digital Natives do not all experience or value technology in the same ways. Prensky’s natives seem to come from a world dominated by fast paced gaming and MTV. This is clearly not the case for all natives and in a world where social gaming is becoming dominant the pace is changing alongside new styles of interaction. There is also the gendered aspect of this description as ‘fast-twitch’ first person shooter type games were never the norm across genders. Nor has the experience of technology remained constant across the years. Young people born today might take technology for granted but they very much expect it to fade into the background. At its extreme there is almost a counter culture emerging against pervasive technology that is not in the service of individual needs. Shiny new toys do not have the alure that they once did and technology that gets in the way, requires any degree of learning curve or is not built into an existing ecosystem is shunned. For another emerging group of students, a division between technology as a social tool and technology as an unwanted or unappreciated aspect of their learning can be seen. Students who are happy to use technology to message their friends but fail to see the utility, that same technology can bring to their learning, are becoming a larger group who need to be reminded that they have access to all the worlds information in their pockets, if they just choose to use it. 

Much of the assumption around the Digital Natives is that they should be able to call on their vast experience with digital technologies to learn and collaborate in new and exciting ways. That the only obstacle to this is that their Immigrant instructors stand in the way of this occurring. The reality is that our Digital Natives do not have experiences that allow them to learn in the wider sense required for todays creative and innovative world. They may in some cases have skills required to learn new tools but they combine that skill with impoverished models for thinking and inquiring that prevent them from using their digital skills in meaningful ways. They rely on instant gratification from game play but lack the required grit and resilience to move forward when this is lacking. Our Digital Natives still need to be shown how to learn and how to use their digital tools for learning.  

On the other side is the oversimplification of the place that technology plays in the lives of Digital Immigrants. Prensky kept this at the level of an ever present accent that can be detected by the native speaker. This interpretation is not common and the term Digital Immigrant carries with it an assumption that members of this group just don’t get technology and that the older you are the less likely you are to use technology. The reality is that it is not one’s age which determines one’s level of engagement with technology but one’s disposition towards it. Some of the most successful integrators of technology I have encountered are (in my politest voice) ‘older members’ of the profession. They see the affordances of the technology and are able to weave its use into their teaching in meaningful ways. Whats more, they ensure their students are active partners in learning, their classroom is a shared space and they allow at every turn for quality learning to be owned by the students. Like all effective teachers they use technology to enhance long-life learning and they help their students to recognise the many tools they have available. They may retain an accent as Prensky describes but counter to the implications of many of the oversimplifications of his writing, they do not present a qualitative divide. 

We are beginning to see the first Digital Natives return to our schools as teachers and while they bring with them an experience of schooling arguably tainted by the beliefs of Digital Immigrants we could expect to see a difference in approach. As with all individuals the differences between new graduates has more to do with their individuality than with their membership of a particular group or more importantly their birthday. Yes, they assume access to the internet, they are aware of certain digital tool sets but they are also unaware of many of the skills and tools considered important for success in a digital age. Coding skills remain rare for example and strategies for the use of technology for critical thinking and innovation are as wide spread in this group as amongst their older colleagues. Clearly their is much room for ongoing learning and the construction of a pedagogy with technology at its core is yet to become a natural part of teacher training programmes.  

Prensky’s analysis continues to spark debate and that is a positive thing. The reality of how our supposedly Digital Natives or Immigrants engage with technology and learning reveals a more complex landscape than a simple dichotomy allows for. A richer subcultural analysis is required where individual narratives of technology's meanings may be revealed.  

By Nigel Coutts

Marc Prensky, (2001),"Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants Part 1", On the Horizon, Vol. 9 Iss 5 pp. 1 - 6

Education: Competition vs Collaboration

In a time where much of the debate around education is linked to performance on national and international assessments such as PISA, TIMMS, PIRLS and in Australia, NAPLAN combined with calls for market-driven reforms there is a danger that a climate of competition between schools and systems will grow. Such competition while potentially inspiring systems to identify areas for growth may also give rise to a desire to keep ideas that deliver results a secret. What is most interesting is that this potential for competitive secrecy occurs at a time when teachers are increasingly empowered to share and collaborate across schools and systems on an international scale.

Attend a teach meet and you will see many of the strengths of educational systems on display. Firstly, teachers are passionate about what they do and bring creativity, innovation and evidenced based practice to the solution of every-day challenges faced. Teachers are enthusiastic sharers and see the benefits of collaborations within the profession. Teachers are appreciative and supportive of the intellectual activity of their peers and provide nurturing feedback that allows good ideas to become great. Teachers are highly professional, committed to learning and dedicated to ongoing professional development that will deliver results in their classrooms. Lastly it is always apparent that there exists a wealth of amazing ideas within the educational community waiting to be shared and that by engaging in this sort of collaboration you are highly likely to find that solution you have been looking for.

Physical teach meets are great but with social networking the opportunities for virtual collaborations continue to improve. Twitter, Skype, Facebook, ScoopIt, Google Apps for Education (GAFE) all offer opportunities for sharing and collaboration on a global scale. Thanks to such tools it has become feasible that educators can source all of their learning and teaching resource requirements from a pool of ideas created, evaluated and curated by teachers. Such a body of resources is placing pressure on publishers of text books and related resources as teachers increasingly find better options available from colleagues and shared at no cost. The development of this shared tool set requires ongoing two-way collaboration where the value derived from sharing a resource comes from the access it provides in return.

This is where competition is potentially most harmful. If my access to a resource provides my students and my school or system with an advantage am I more or less likely to share that in a competitive market-driven economy? Beyond this is a system likely to invest in developing new programmes that involve an element of risk compared to adopting a widely used commercial solution already adopted by those viewed as competitors? In the world of IT the saying ‘No one was ever fired for buying IBM’ reflected not that they had the best option but that this was the safe option. Competition in a market where success or failure is determined by a narrow, clearly defined measure such as that provided by national and international assessment programmes is unlikely to ever deliver innovation.

The use of these measures not only stifles creative teaching but limits student exposure to creative learning. The trend to following the leaders in the league tables on PISA has most recently shifted the focus from Finland to China. Yong Zhao, Director of the Institute for Global and Online Education in the College of Education, University of Oregon and influential speaker on education advises caution. China’s success on PISA has come at a high cost to its students and within China there are calls for a more human approach to education. Zhao shares concerns over the demands and pressure that stellar performance on high stakes testing places on students. 'That’s the secret: when you spend all your time preparing for tests, and when students are selected based on their test-taking abilities, you get outstanding test scores. But is this what we want for our children?’ (Zhao, Y 2010) Further analysis of PISA results reveal a negative correlation between results and confidence in entrepreneurial capabilities (Zhao, Y 2012) indicating that what these tests measure and create may not equate with the ideal graduate disposition innovative industries are hoping for.

Further the sort of competition driven by these ‘High Stake' assessments hides the underlying social, racial and gender issues that allow a system to produce great results for some but not all of its students. Sue Thomson writes 'The results from the latest PISA assessment have shown that Australia does have a world-class education system - for most students - but there's much work to do to raise the achievement level of Indigenous, remote and poor students.’ A nation’s results on PISA readily hides the results it achieves for its disadvantaged and the trend to blame teachers and schools for dips and defects at a national level shifts the blame away from deeper socio-economic factors. Raewyn Connell shares that educators know how to deliver effective education across diverse environments and needs but that this is of little use if the agenda is already set; 'contrary to the rhetoric of ‘evidence-based policy’, neo-liberal policy-making proceeds as if it already knows the answer to policy problems.’ If that answer is pre-set as market-driven reform targeted at driving improved teachers, teaching and schools the underlying inequities will go unnoticed.

Connell concludes that 'Therefore, one of the most important things that intellectual workers concerned with education can now do, is to build alternative spaces - spaces in which critique is possible, practitioner knowledge can find expression and other trajectories for education are proposed.’ I agree, now is the time for educators to collaboratively affirm what education can achieve. To work as a profession together, united in the goal of achieving excellence for all students and to do so through the sharing of our collective wisdom.

By Nigel Coutts

References

Connell, R. (2013) Why do market ‘reforms’ persistently increase inequality? Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, Vol.34(2), p.279--285.

Thomson, S. (2008). International league: Australia’s standing in international tests Teacher:The National Education Magazine, February 2008 40-43

Visual Literacy - Metalanguage & Learning

What it means to be literate today is significantly different to what it was in the not too distant past. Once, being able to decode text was sufficient even if barely so. Today literacy involves the ability to make meaning from a multitude of text types, formats and modalities. The skills required are more diverse and the opportunities for engagement are much expanded. This new literacy with its multiple dimensions requires teaching programmes with a broad depth and appropriate scaffolds and structures to support learners as they navigate a labyrinthine world of meaning. 

If making meaning from the text is the goal, then it is worth considering what we mean by this. Firstly, the use of the phrase ‘making meaning’ is most deliberate, it is a process and it is one that multiple actors play a part in. Meaning is not embedded in the text by its author to be passively decoded by the reader. A better imagining of the process is to see this as a conversation between the author the text and the reader and to include in the analysis of these conversations consideration of the context within which this process occurs. Between these agentic actors of author, reader, text and context meaning is made. The consequence of seeing literacy as a process for making meaning, is that the result is not fixed. In a most dynamic way the process of making meaning from texts as author or reader will involve a dynamic sharing of thoughts, beliefs, values and understandings modified by context and shaped by engagement with the process i.e. the act of making meaning from and through text transforms all actors involved in the process.

An increasingly significant aspect of literacy is an awareness of the visual elements that fall beyond the traditional components of written text. Termed ‘Visual Literacy’ this is the ability to read and create communications that use visual elements. It combines the skills of traditional literacy with knowledge of design, art, graphic arts, media and human perception. It takes literacy further beyond a decoding of text to a decoding of the complete package around the communication. Visual Literacy expands the concept of literacy beyond the page of the book into a reading of the visual world both as it is enacted by human actions and as this human world interacts with the natural. The point that we are continually bombarded by images is frequently made in support of the importance of ‘visual literacy’. The modern world presents a wealth of images to be read and interrogated, a wide canvas from which to make meaning. It is not surprising then that often the subtle details behind these layers of meaning is overlooked and we read only the surface of what is presented to us. Nevertheless, understanding that many of the elements of our visual world are deliberate constructions that rely on the elements of ‘visual literacy’ should encourage us to take a deeper look and to better understand how we may read and author visual texts to maximum effect.

Increasingly Visual Literacy is expanding into Multimodal Literacy as digital communications allow new opportunities for blending of modes and medias of communication. Visual Literacy can be applied to single images or instances, ensembles or collections of objects/images/artefacts, or complete texts. With this complexity comes need for an understanding of the differences between media and mode. Media refers to the way in which the message is disseminated, includes print and electronic methods and is independent of the mode. A spoken text as an example of a ‘mode of communication’ can be presented across multiple medias e.g. live performance or recording. The relationship between mode and media can be quite simple with a change in the media sometimes having little impact. At other times the relationship is complex and a change in the media can have significant effect on the reading; a live performance might have a much more significant impact than an MP3 recording listened to alone. As is always the case the process of making meaning from varying modes and medias will be influenced by each actor in this increasingly complex conversation.

The degree of complexity that is encountered in making meaning from visual texts can be quite overwhelming particularly for the novice. According to Frank Serafini ‘One of the key aspects of the exploration phase is the development of a specific vocabulary or metalanguage for discussing and analysing the textual, visual, and design elements in particular multimodal ensembles.’ Board of Studies NSW defines metalanguage as ‘Language (which can include technical terms, concepts, ideas or codes) used to describe and discuss a language’ (BOS NSW - English K-10 Syllabus) In this instance we are looking for a language that will empower our discussion and sharing of visual literacy and in doing so we recognize visual literacy as a language. To this end there are a number of alternatives each of which offers differing levels of complexity and focus while providing a structure within which analysis might occur. Used in this way a metalanguage acts as a scaffold simultaneously bringing elements into the reader’s gaze while providing a language with which to describe and share the meaning that is made.

An excellent starting point for a richer exploration of what Visual Literacy is the work of Dr Frank Serafini. His book ‘Reading the Visual: An Introduction to Teaching Multimodal Literacies’ provides the understanding teachers require as they integrate visual literacy into their teaching. Dr Jon Callow of ‘The University of Sydney’ is another source for anyone seeking a well considered metalanguage for use with Visual Literacy. Dr Callow’s work including a significant component on Assessment of Visual Literacy learning is shared through PETAA (Primary English Teachers Association of Australia). Below is a metalanguage guide distilled from a number of sources including both Dr. Frank Serafini and Dr. Jon Callow. Its aim is to provide a broad coverage of the concepts which may be relevant to a discussion of visual texts. In its scope it it is broad and should be introduced slowly over time so that young readers and authors are exposed to the concepts most immediately relevant and noticeable while more experienced readers have access to a metalanguage with appropriate complexity.

Another excellent resource is the Visual Literacy Toolbox provided online by University of Maryland College. This site provides a bank of questions for ‘Form, Content, Context, Frame and Gaze’. By using this bank of questions the reader has access to a set of prompts which serve to focus the gaze on key elements of the visual and allow for a deeper reading. 

Part of a collaborative student artwork inspired by Shaun Tan's 'The Lost thing'

A beautiful example for visual literacy are the imaginative and visually splendid texts created by author/illustrator Shaun Tan. Shaun Tan’s books and multimedia works are full of detail and exhibit a mastery of visual literacy. According to Tan ‘Neither text nor image explain each other fully, and the reader must fill in the gap of meaning with their own theories, based largely on an emotional reaction – fear, curiosity, amusement, bewilderment. (Word and Pictures, an Intimate Distance’ an interview with Shaun Tan). In this comment the rich appeal of visual literacy is revealed, it invites a degree of reflection and participation that allows the reader to discover something more about themselves and gives the author a powerful set of tools. 

by Nigel Coutts

Girls & STEM

Watching video from the Apollo space programme one can’t help but notice how things have changed since those days in the early 1970s. Banks of small round rectangular screens, dot matrix printers, a myriad of switches and dials each with a specific task to perform and a design aesthetic that says functionality in mild mannered green. Beside the technology are the men who made the space programme possible. Men in shirts with narrow ties, sensible hair styles and the obligatory cigar. What is missing beside the sort of computing power we carry in our pockets today are women. In the 70s science and engineering was what men did and from a quick look at the statistics there continues to be much room for change. 

Research reported by Kate Broadley (2011) shows that in New South Wales participation rates for girls in mathematics and science fell from 16.8% in 2001 to 13.8% in 2011. A similar but smaller downward trend is reported for boys across this period. The same picture is seen in the United States where Leaper et al (2012) report that 'among the recent doctoral degrees awarded in the U.S., women accounted for 27% in mathematics, 15% in physics, 20% in computer science, and 18% in engineering.’ and Milgram (2011) report that 0% of graduates in energy management and petroleum are women.  This at a time when 58% of two-year college enrolments are women. In the UK, WISE (Women in Science and Engineering Analysis of Labour Force April-August 2014) reports that just 12.8% of the STEM workforce are women. 

This is at a time when STEM skills are increasingly in demand. According to the Office of the Chief Scientist (Australia) ‘Science and innovation are recognised internationally as key for boosting productivity, creating more and better jobs, enhancing competitiveness and growing an economy.’(OCS 2014 p7) Analysis of the Australian job market by PwC shows that 44% of current jobs are likely to be at risk from computerisation and technology over the next 20 years and that 75% of the fastest growing occupations now require STEM skills. Adding to the significance of gendered career choices is research reported by Broadley that shows 'at 24 years, those who work in STEM occupations earn on average over $100 per week more than those who are employed in non-STEM occupations’. The bias in the selection of STEM pathways is thus becoming a social justice issue as patterns of participation described here for women are also present for other marginalised and disadvantaged groups, a fact recognised by Office of the Chief Scientist when he calls for 'high levels of participation and success in STEM for all Australians, including women, Indigenous students, and students from disadvantaged and marginalised backgrounds’. 

The question that must be addressed is why do girls avoid STEM disciplines and what might be done to reverse this trend? One clear piece of evidence is that girls are as able in STEM fields as their male counterparts. Multiple research projects in Australia and the United States show that when other factors such as social economic status are accounted for results between genders in STEM subjects are equal. (Broadley 2011) and Peters (2013 p1) 'In fact, girls and boys throughout their formal schooling in most Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations have enjoyed equivalent test scores in problem-solving and Science literacy.’ Despite this reality of equitable ability a recent report by Accenture in the UK showed that 60% of girls aged twelve believe mathematics and science is too difficult to learn. This study also revealed that 47% of the 4,000 young girls surveyed felt that STEM disciplines were better suited to boys. 

Two studies (Broadley 2011 and Leaper et al 2012) have applied Eccles (2009) ‘Expectancy-Value Theory’ (EVT) of motivation to an analysis of girls perception of STEM disciplines. EVT explores the roles that an individuals expectations for success in a field and the value they apply to that field have as critical factors in motivation and engagement. Where the individual has low expectations for success and they value the task lowly they are unlikely to engage. Positive results are found when a range of personal and social factors are supportive of girls having high expectations for success and positive valuing of STEM disciplines. Leaper et al (2012) report that girls were more likely to have strong maths/science motivation if they experienced less conformity pressure (to typical gender roles) from parents, they endorsed gender equality, or they had been exposed to feminism. Social support for maths/science from peers was also found to positively impact engagement. Eccles (2011 p195) found similarly 'Furthermore, gendered socialisation practices at home, in the schools, and among peers play a major role in shaping these individual differences in self-perceptions and subjective task values.' 

Research shows that girls make their career choices early, before age 14 (Broadley 2011) and possibly before they move into High School. Peters (2013) shows that girls interest in STEM careers as they exit school was best predicted by interest as they entered Secondary School. This means that schools need to ensure that girls are receiving affirmative messages about the potential of STEM pathways while they are in Primary school. The traditional approach of providing career guidance as girls approach their senior years of schooling is too late as significant choices about the broad directions likely to be taken have been made. This problem is exacerbated by the limited imaginaries that girls (and boys) have about their potential STEM related futures. The stereotypical image of a lab-coated scientist is as damaging to the image of STEM as it is false. Research shows that our young people have limited and limiting views of the diversity of pathways available to them in STEM fields and that STEM skills will be increasingly critical to many careers not traditionally associated with sciences. The danger for schools is that this message needs to be received while students are in the care of generalist teachers whose knowledge of the diversity of STEM disciplines is as impoverished as those they teach and who teach science guided by a traditional science curriculum.  

Rosie the Riveter was an iconic image based on reality that encouraged women to take on traditional male careers during WW2 - What is Rosie's equivalent for today?

The dominant response suggested by the research is to provide young girls with positive role models and mentors who will ignite their passions and reveal that STEM provides opportunities for girls. Watermeyer reports on the success that ‘Discover!’ has had in Cardiff, UK. Discover! is a STEM programme that pairs young girls with female Mentors and Role Models. Watermeyer (2012 p697) reports that 'we are confident in the value of Discover! in confirming and extending the scientific imaginations of young female learners and a sense that the programme is a catalyst for their future imaginaries.’ This success is largely a result of the exposure to successful and inspiring role models and ongoing support from female mentors. The importance of role models and mentors is supported by Broadley. and Milgram. with both indicating the importance of their involvement during the primary years. Milgram expands on the nature of the message required from role-models explaining that women need to see that work-life balance is achievable within STEM disciplines 'For this reason, it is critical that biographies of female role models used in outreach materials emphasize not only the path these women took to arrive at their chosen careers, but also the joy they found in their work, as well as their personal interests and family stories.’(Milgram 2011 p6) 

Donna Milgram (2011 p5) writes 'Women and girls need to see female role models in the workplace that look like them—over and over and over again. They need to receive the message that women can work in STEM careers and be successful and fulfilled in their work life while still having a personal life, and they need to receive this message repeatedly.’ This is a message that needs to come through multiple channels including schools, parents, peer networks, industry and the media. Programmes such as CSIRO's Scientists and Mathematicians in Schools is one model that builds supportive connections between industry and schools. Industry should not wait idly for schools to deliver a gender neutral STEM workforce but should actively seek opportunities to develop partnerships and provide suitable role models to schools and clear descriptions of the diversity of options available. 

The benefit to society is greater than bringing equity of career choice to girls but is about bringing new feminist perspectives, values and ideas to a growing field of endeavour with a critical role to play in our shared futures.  

By Nigel Coutts

Kate Broadley (2015) Entrenched gendered pathways in science, technology, engineering and mathematics: Engaging girls through collaborative career development Australian Journal of Career Development Vol 24 (1) 27-38 

Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2011). Gendered educational and occupational choices: Applying the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 35, 195–201 

Campbell Leaper., Timea Farkas & Christia Spears Brown (2012) Adolescent Girls’ Experiences and Gender-Related Beliefs in Relation to Their Motivation in Math/Science and English Journal of Youth Adolescence (2012) 41:268–282 

Donna Milgram (2011) How to Recruit Women and Girls to the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Classroom Technology and Engineering Teacher; November 2011 

Office of the Chief Scientist (2014) Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics: Australia’s Future. Australian Government, Canberra. 

Heather Peters (2013) Girls’ Rosy Future in Green STEM Disciplines Redress August 2013 

PwC (2015) A Smart Move: Future-proofing Australia’s workforce by growing skills in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) /April 2015 

Richard Watermeyer (2012) Confirming the legitimacy of female participation in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM): evaluation of a UK STEM initiative for girls, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 33:5, 679-700 

WISE (2014) Women in Science, Technology, Engineering and mathematics: The talent pipeline from classroom to boardroom - https://www.wisecampaign.org.uk/uploads/wise/files/WISE_UK_Statistics_2014.pdf

Why build a Personal Learning Network?

'Inside the Black Box’ was written by Black and William in 1998 and in it they describe the classroom as a black box with inputs and outputs but what occurred inside was a mystery. For many teachers the reality has been that what occurs in their classroom has been both private and isolating, a matter between the teacher and his or her students but a task largely tackled alone. But this isolationist view is, in the age of the social media and networking increasingly challenged and more and more teachers are finding their voice, sharing their ideas and gaining valuable insights from a global community of connected educators.  

Understanding the value of the collective knowledge teachers have is a critical step towards understanding the role of a Personal Learning Network. In each class we teach there is a unique mix of personalities, mindsets and learning dispositions, alone we are likely to face new challenges meeting the needs of this mix of learners but collectively it is almost guaranteed that a colleague somewhere will have confronted a similar scenario. Within this collective intellect we will find answers to many of the questions we confront, new approaches, alternate plans of action and a great pool of resources to draw upon. Your personal learning network offers you access to the wisdom of a global collective of teachers with insights to what works and does not work inside the classroom. This is knowledge shared directly from the coal face, shared by busy teachers with real students and the same demands to meet standards that you face, not text book writers or publishers who are more interested in selling books or programs. 

The flip side of access to this collective knowledge is understanding that you also have valuable knowledge to share. When teachers begin their journey towards a Personal Learning Network this is one of the barriers they face; the false belief that their ideas are not worth sharing. Only when you take a risk and begin sharing do you see that your experience has genuine value to the network. By joining an online conversation, responding to questions, sharing a link or making a blog post you add value to the network and become a co-constructor of knowledge. Personally this moment occurred for me while participating in a Twitter chat (#aussieED). Sharing my ideas alongside other teachers was a confronting moment but one that quickly revealed a community that is welcoming and actively encourages participation. The reality is that Personal Learning Networks become more beneficial and of greater value as they scale, new memberships and contributions avoid the dangers of a small pool of contributors becoming an ‘echo chamber’ where dominant ideas go unchallenged.  

Time spent developing your Personal Learning Network is time well spent but it does take time. The danger busy teachers face is in becoming so engrossed in dealing with the day to day business of teaching that we make poor choices when it comes to time spent on our personal learning. We manage to find time for our students, for phone calls home, for report writing and programming all the while letting our engagement with learning slip down the list of things to do. Ensuring your personal learning is a priority is essential and should be seen against the value it brings to your students; enhance your teaching and you enhance their learning. Munro, Hopkins and Craig recognise this when they state ‘Student outcomes depend on the teaching in the school, its pedagogic capital’. For you, your school and most importantly your students time invested in building a Personal Learning Network is time spent developing your pedagogic capital. 

How ever you approach your PLN you must keep the key principle in mind; it needs to be Personal. The way you choose to build your PLN, the connections you make, the ideas you explore, the resources you share need to be relevant to you and should connect with your interests, expertise, passion and learning goals. If you are not finding value in your PLN, change it.  

My journey towards a PLN started a few years back but for much of that time it was something I dabbled without any real commitment. A little bit of Twitter, the occasional blog post, articles shared with colleagues by email, some social bookmarking. The trigger was seeing what deliberate, regular engagement could produce. This came thanks to Chris Betcher sharing his blog ‘My Daily Create’ with the audience at EduTech 2014 in Brisbane. Chris had decided to make creativity a deliberate daily act inspired by Sir Ken Robinson but looking to make creativity more than an idea. Each day for a year Chris has posted to his blog a piece of creativity and the results are quite special to see. More than anything else his blog shows personal growth and an engaged audience many of whom have undoubtedly been encouraged to pursue their own creativity. After listening to Chris I decided to post to my blog on a weekly basis. So far this year I have missed just one week which I blame on being overloaded by ideas while presenting at ICOT in Spain (something my blog gave me the confidence to do).

Blogging on a regular basis has helped me understand what I do as a teacher. It has expanded my understanding of learning, forced me to read more widely about education as I search for ideas that may evolve into posts and added a new dimension to my reflective practice. Regular writing with an audience in mind has provided insight to the process of writing that I have shared with my students and the blog has become a resource I call upon when sharing ideas and planning with colleagues. I have taken a certain pleasure in building an audience but I have kept sight of the belief that the blog needs to firstly have value to me. This means I continue to write about topics of interest to me rather than looking for ideas that may have broad popularity, I am not going for ‘link bait’.  

Alongside the blog I have become more engaged with Twitter and found a community of educators there with great ideas to share. Through Twitter I have been able to build connections with educators around the world and each connection further erodes the walls of the black-box. As a member of an online community you will find you can have value in multiple ways. Social media needs an audience and even as a passive observer you add this to a network. Commenting on content shared adds a different type of value as does favouriting and re-tweeting. Social media needs people to curate and refer content, to find ideas and allow them to bubble to the surface. Lastly of course content creators provide the ideas to be shared whether it be Podcasts, YouTube clips, blog posts, LinkedIn articles or original tweets.  

When you first dip your toes into Twitter you are likely to have mixed reactions. Many first timers find it overwhelming and question the sanity of the colleague who so highly recommended it. At some point if you persist it will begin to make sense. These images might help with that process. If you see Twitter as a way of collecting ideas that you will later sort through and make sense of you will struggle. Twitter is not a gentle flow of ideas, it is a rushing torrent, your bucket will rapidly overflow and you are likely to mourn the loss of so many good ideas. The key is to think of Twitter as a fast flowing stream that you visit when you have time. You enjoy the ideas that flow past while you are there, you grab the best ones for use at a later date and you let the rest float by. If you are not watching the stream you don’t think about it, you just know it will still be flowing when you next visit and most likely some new idea will float by.  

So how will you build your Personal Learning Network? What ideas, interests, passions, discoveries do you have to share and how will you add you voice to the community of educators? Begin by trusting in the value of your knowledge and experience and then share it with the world. 

by Nigel Coutts

Black, P & Wiliam, D (1998), Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment, School of Education, King’s College, London.

Making the most of Bloom's Taxonomy

Spend time in any school talking to teachers and even students about thinking and learning and you are likely to hear the phrase ‘Bloom's taxonomy' passed around. More than likely you will see it displayed on a wall as a set of processes learners engage with when working in the cognitive domain. Quite possibly it will be arranged in a pyramid or as a ladder with knowledge at the bottom and either evaluating or creating at the top. It might be labeled as 'High Order Thinking' and the teacher in the room is apt to inform you of how his or her students are encouraged to spend more time thinking towards the top of the ladder than the bottom. Despite the enthusiasm many teachers have for Bloom’s and the work of its lead author Benjamin, few educators have read the ‘Handbook’ that outlines its structure and most of the lovely posters leave out two key components. Beyond this aspect though there is a better way to imagine Bloom’s Taxonomy that sees it more as a 'choose you own adventure’ than a ladder to be climbed one rung at a time.

Sadly when most educators think of Bloom’s they think of just the single domain, the Cognitive, that rules so much of what we do in education. Had we focused on all three domains equally we may have better understood the part we do use and be much closer to a holistic view of education where the ‘Affective’ and ‘Psychomotor’ domains are viewed as equals to the cognitive. It is a shame that partly due to our obsession with Bloom’s we ignore the important aspects of our student’s feelings (hearts) and their doings (hands) despite these clearly playing a part in the taxonomy.

Since its introduction Bloom’s Taxonomy has been revised, revered and reflected on both positively and critically. I do not intend to enter into debate here on the quality of the research behind the taxonomy or lack of evidence for the hierarchy itself. The reality is that Bloom’s has become entrenched within the language of learning and this alone gives its power as a learning tool. What I would like to do is suggest a use for it that sees it as more than just an aspirational ladder but as a tool where each rung has value and may assist in driving learning forward.

Begin by moving past the idea that Bloom’s is a hierarchy with the implication of a linear progression of thinking from most simple towards most complex or valuable. See it instead as an intermeshed set of cognitive tasks that we combine and re-combine as our learning needs change. Such a process is particularly relevant to an inquiry process and using Bloom’s as an adjunct scaffold in this way can help students reflect on their learning. The process of inquiry might start anywhere on this jumbled up Taxonomy and where it progresses to next depends upon the learners progress through the task of solving a problem, creating a solution or refining an idea.

Typically the students will start with a question, one they have been given or one that they discovered or imagined. If it is their question the process most likely commenced before the question was formed with some wondering or evaluation of a piece of knowledge they had found. Once we have a question we can proceed and where the student goes next depends on what they already know or believe they know about the question. Maybe they do begin with a quest for knowledge but maybe they begin with a process of evaluating what they know. At times it might be appropriate to begin with creating a solution, as is the case when a ‘fail fast’ design process is applied. The next cognitive step depends on the results of the first. Try a new idea through a creative idea and when it fails you are likely in need of some evaluating. Maybe you are applying what you learned and re-testing. Maybe you found some interesting pieces of knowledge and now need to understand what you have absorbed.

The key is that the learning process is never neat, it is messy with lots of back and forth movement. There is no straight line path to learning and using the right type of thinking at the right time is more important than using the wrong skills even if it is a high order skill. ‘Evaluating’ when you should be ‘Applying knowledge’ or when you have no knowledge to ‘Evaluate’ will not help your learning move forward and nor should ‘Creating’ or ‘Evaluating’ only come at the end of a learning journey.

Use Bloom's Taxonomy to encourage students to talk about their thinking and plan their learning journey

If you do have a lovely set of posters for Bloom’s Taxonomy consider taking them down from the wall and using them with your students as a set of cards. Ask the students which card are they using in their learning now, which card might they use next and so on. Ensure the cards are mixed up and be careful to not let your old beliefs about their hierarchical value of these skills block your students from choosing the right card for their learning. You might find that suddenly your students are genuinely excited by that old taxonomy on the wall and use its language to describe their learning adventures.

by Nigel Coutts

Atherton J S (2013) Learning and Teaching; Bloom's taxonomy -  http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/bloomtax.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy

5 Steps to a Killer Poster Presentation

With thanks to Lawrence G Miller PHD and CEO, Miller & Associates for this guest posting. Follow Lawrence G Miller on Twitter @lawrencegmiller or LinkedIn 

A big piece of paper with text and images?  A pretty simple form of educational technology, but this is a format that can be as richly engaging as any our more contemporary digital formats.  It’s a poster!

The exact origins of the use of a single sheet of paper to encapsulate research findings are not at all clear.  In the late 1960s scientific research conferences exhibited simple posters that consisted of graphs, diagrams, and pictures, but did not contain text other than captions.  Within a few years, several scientific conferences established the poster presentation sessions that established the format pretty much as we have known it.  Today, posters have become a popular format for virtually all academic disciples, including education.

There is a certain challenge to excerpting research data or summarizing a complex project on one piece of paper.  You can think of it as akin to the Twitter paradigm of a message in 140 characters of text.  Yet, a well-designed, attractive poster can be a great learning experience in itself.  The design process forces the creator to synthesize and articulate their project or study.  Further, the experience of displaying the poster and engaging in a dialogue with interested conference participants is an extraordinarily rich experience with multiple benefits.
Here are five suggestions that will help you create a great poster and maximize the benefits of presenting in this format.

1.     Let It Flow, Let It Flow
A great poster has a logical flow to it.  An on-looker should be able to follow the intent of the poster.  In a more formal scientific-style poster, the material that is on the left side would be the set-up.  Here one would find the purpose of the research depicted on the poster, the research questions, and the methodology used.  The center area on the poster usually displays the data results of the study.  The right side is where one finds the interpretations of the data and the conclusions of the study.  The bottom right is typically where the bibliography would reside and any acknowledgments such as funding sources.

2.     Follow the Rules, Break the Rules
A poster that is entered in a competition should make sure to include all of the elements specified by the competition rules.  Reading and understanding the rules will make certain that your poster will receive all of the points that are assigned for specific areas.  However, there is room for creativity.  For example, a vertical format poster (think portrait as opposed to landscape) can make a poster distinctive.  One creative poster was constructed of 6 separate posters assembled with wooden slats.  It followed the rules for special dimensions, yet made a distinctive and effective presentation.

3.     Pictures Tell the Story
Images not only are an important way to display data, they also are a crucial design element.  Appropriate charts and graphs are typical of good posters, but sometimes a photographic image or an illustration will say something that numbers cannot.  Images should be really good photos or very simple charts or graphs.  Do not overload your images with information as they will lose their effectiveness in attracting people to stop at your poster.

4.     Clean, Simple Fonts
Nothing makes a poster look more cluttered than the use of inappropriate fonts.  Using fonts such as Arial, Franklin Gothic, and Futura make a poster look nice, but they are also very readable.  Do not mix fonts.  You can use Bold and Italic, or slightly different versions of a font family to call attention to the elements of your poster in terms of its flow.  Also, avoid using all capital letters – upper and lower case makes for easier reading.  Keep in mind that your poster will first be viewed by people who are “shopping” for topics of interest and will not initially be very close to your poster.  Your headline at the top must be large enough for people to easily ready it from a distance of five to ten feet.

5.     Engage During and After the Session
The real beauty of a poster presentation is that only those who care about the topic are likely to come and visit with you during a presentation session.  This one-on-one engagement can yield some of the richest experiences possible for both the presenter and that audience of one who cares about the content.  Be certain to have a handout that gives more depth than the posters could ever present.  The handout is where you can go into detail about your project or research.  And, don’t forget your business cards.

Just one more thing . . .
Creating a poster is a great learning experience.  Its use should be considered by instructors at all levels and a valid “deliverable” for group or individual work.

Hess, G.R., K. Tosney, and L. Liegel. 2014. Creating Effective Poster Presentations. 

Office of Undergraduate Research, Poster Presentations, University of Texas at Austin, 

Waquet, Francoise, Posters and Poster Sessions: A History, Center for History of Physics Newsletter, Volume XL, No. 2, Fall 2008

Learning from History

There is an innate beauty and wonder in History. There are times when I enjoy History on a similar level to how I personally enjoy abstract art. Abstract art is something I can only pretend to understand, its deeper meanings are largely locked away to me and yet I enjoy it and find I can make a personal connection with certain pieces. There are times when I enjoy History in this way, immersing myself in the wonder and majesty of past civilisations brings a definite joy. I have my bank of historical facts and value it amongst other knowings that I have clung to. There are also times when I want to understand the why and how of History and to make deep meaningful connections with the present and the future. It is in this way that the study of History has real value and it is this aspect of History as a subject that our students should come to understand. Unfortunately too often History lessons are more about fact finding and the knowledge our students have of the way things were is seldom connected with the way things are or the way things might be in the future. 

Historians will argue that through History we learn from our mistakes, that as George Santayana is misquoted as saying ‘Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.' 

What he actually said was something a little different and he wrote it in 'Reason in Common Sense’ Volume One in a tome titled ’The Life of Reason’ and he is a philosopher and not a Historian so he is talking about ‘Reason' here, not stuff that happened. . . He wrote: 

Progress, far from consisting in change, depends on retentiveness. When change is absolute there remains no being to improve and no direction is set for possible improvement: and when experience is not retained, as among savages, infancy is perpetual. Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.

Ignoring the misunderstanding of what was said and ignoring the racial and cultural elitism in George’s words, (an elitism that perhaps lies at many of the best examples of us not learning from our histories, such as invading lands occupied by so called ’savages’ in the times of western expansionism and colonialism or turning them into impoverished slaves of capitalism in more modern times) does remembering the past prevent us from repeating it? 

In this pursuit countless generations of students have studied Australia’s History (or World History), from settlement, to colonisation, exploration and the discovery of gold, then federation and immigration and World Wars and so on to the present. Our hope is that at the end of this protracted journey of learning, they will look back and say ‘Oh, it all makes sense now, the lesson from History is  . . .’ BUT they don’t and WE don’t. 

If we look honestly at human History it shows that Humans do not learn from the mistakes of our past. A meta-analysis of Human History, starting with the most recent mistakes we have made and going back through time would reveal this. For each mistake we would look for an example of where we have made that same mistake at an earlier time. Where ‘Mistake A’ was preceded by ‘Mistake A1’ and so forth. Few would be surprised to find that for every mistake we have made, there is an example in which the same mistake was made at an earlier date. 

Some people might learn from some of their mistakes BUT the historic record shows that Humanity does not learn from its mistakes, Humanity does not learn from its past. There is no evidence that we know how. 

Most importantly if the future of History teaching is a continuation of teaching students what our mistakes have been instead of teaching them HOW to LEARN from the mistakes (and success and triumph and progress) of the past, of HOW to APPLY historic knowledge to modern problems nothing will change. 

Three images that tell a story, but whose story and what might it have to do with today?

Fortunately things have changed, somewhat. I know many amazing teachers of History who take their students on journeys into the past returning with lessons and powerful learning for their tomorrows. They allow their students to become Historians and hand over the keys to the time machine allowing their students to take charge of the learning. But even for the best their is an excessive demand to negotiate a context within which learning about the past to shape the future is a challenge that is forced to take a back seat.

The recent Review of the Australian National Curriculum by Dr. Kevin Donnelly and Professor Kenneth Wiltshire and a 2010 submission to the Minister of Education by the Australian Curriculum Coalition are worth noting here. Two flaws in The National Curriculum and particularly the new History Syllabus play a role in constraining what may be achieved. Firstly the curriculum is overcrowded as a whole and bloated with content within specific syllabus documents. This heavy content focus encourages an approach to teaching History (and other disciplines) that places the emphasis on building a knowledge bank rather than giving time to a deep analysis of cause and effect and the lessons to be learned. Secondly as Donnelly and Wiltshire noted from submissions to their review, 'the location of complex content at too early a phase in the spectrum F–10'  results in a superficial treatment of topics which require a more detailed analysis. These factors combined with the reality that student’s early experiences of History will be delivered by generalist teachers who have had little professional development around the teaching of the subject means students are likely to equate History with the accumulation of information and miss the important understandings of the process and the connectives so essential to the subject. When students most need to understand that History is a discipline we may use to improve our futures it is consigned to a study of irrelevant and disconnected artifacts of our past. 

When Edward De Bono was asked ‘what schools should stop doing’ while speaking a the International Conference on Thinking (ICOT) in Spain he answered that 'we can reduce many subjects, we can reduce History and Geography'. I have pondered this response numerous times since then. Had anyone other than Professor De Bono made this statement it might be easily dismissed, but given he has multiple Doctorates across diverse fields, has written eighty-five books and has a University faculty dedicated to his work, this is not easily done.  I think when it is combined with a new word De Bono has offered to describe how we approach thinking I understand what he meant. De Bono introduced the word ‘EBNE’ as a way of describing approaches to thinking that are ‘Excellent But Not Enough’.  ‘Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.’ is EBNE (excellent but not enough) it must be ‘Those who cannot apply learning from the past to their present and future situations are condemned to repeat it.’ but for this to happen we need History lessons that teach how to learn from the past and doing that requires a curriculum with time devoted to this goal.  

by Nigel Coutts

Spaces for Learning

Learning is impacted by many forces such as the learner’s disposition to the process, the quality of their teacher’s pedagogy, their emotional state and nature of the curriculum. Amongst this long list of factors is naturally the environment in which that learning occurs and the relationship between the environment and the learner. Our understanding of this relationship has grown and fortunately today’s educators are more willing to experiment with the way spaces are organised to promote learning. The new buzzword to describe learning spaces is ‘flexible’, but what does this mean and how might we ensure that our attractive new spaces do more than look pretty. 

Historic Classroom - courtesy of William Creswell  - Flickr

You do not have to go far back in time to find images of classrooms that fit the look and feel experienced by the first students to experience formalised school education. Sadly you most likely can find classrooms that fit this image in your local school, today. A blackboard or Interactive Whiteboard at the front of the room, a teachers desk beside it, rows of neatly aligned desks and walls conspicuously devoid of colour or covered in carefully selected pieces of student work with a motivational poster going yellow in one corner. Ken Robinson has entertained many audiences with stories of this sort of classroom, stories that are entertaining to so many because they fit perfectly with their experience of school.

But not all classrooms are like this, some present learners with a mix of spaces suitable to a variety of learning modes or meet these varying needs through the use of spaces that are readily adapted throughout the day. Flexible learning spaces that may be tailored to the needs of the learners are said to be the future of learning. The classroom of the future as seen in the emerging spaces of today’s flexible classrooms will be bright airy spaces, full of colour and comfortable furnishings that can be arranged in many ways to create spaces of varying shapes and sizes. The classroom is becoming increasingly homely with spaces to lounge, spaces to sit formally at desks, spaces for collaboration and spaces for quiet reflection. Like so many ideas these flexible spaces first appeared in the offices of the young and hip start up companies of Silicon Valley. Google in addition to leading the world into the era of ‘search’ and all things online also led the way with the adoption of workspaces that smashed the stereotype cubicle spaces of their old economy competitors. Google took the colours of its well-known logo, combined them with playful design sensibilities and open spaces that were readily adapted to differing needs and gave the world a new design aesthetic.  

New trends in office design are envied by schools - Skype, Google and KBS+ 

Since then there has been a good deal of experimentation with learning spaces and we are beginning to understand how to best utilise this new way of thinking. One of the first significant moves forward was the emergence of a metalanguage for the types of spaces we are likely to have. The origins of this language are a little murky but a good starting point is probably the work of architects Prakash Nair, Randall Fielding and Dr. Jeffrey Lackney of Design Share. Their work embodies so much of what has been adopted in a modern design language for schools and introduced three key spaces. Using metaphors from ancient civilisations spaces are seen as Campfires, Watering Holes or Cave Spaces; each serving a different purpose but acting together to meet the needs of a group of learners throughout a day. Campfires are spaces that allow communication on a large scale and fit the model of the lecture into a friendlier space that encourages more back and forth interaction. The Campfire space is best supported by spaces for collaboration on a smaller scale with nearby breakout spaces or flexibility in furnishings that offer this function. Watering Holes are spaces for small group collaboration and should include spaces that facilitate spontaneous interactions and socialisation. By nature they are likely to be loud but can be adapted to the specific needs of the group. Cave Spaces are for individuals and pairs who need access to a quiet space for reflection and meditative thinking. These spaces offer a foundation along with ideas such as tiered seating and task specific areas (wet areas, lab spaces, performance spaces) but with an agenda to allow spaces to be adapted and remixed to suit the needs of the learner schools should create spaces to suit their specific needs. 

Hellerup School in Denmark seen by many as the poster child for new learning spaces

Beyond the physical nature of the spaces there are important considerations for how they are to be used. A quick search online will reveal countless images of attractive educational spaces but such images present a potential risk to school planners. The design of any learning space must be guided by sound principles of learning and the spaces need to be matched to the pedagogy of those who will use them. The most amazing space will fail to enhance learning if it does not suit the needs of its users. There is a danger in hoping that new learning spaces will transform tired pedagogy; a belief that is not reflected by experience. In Sydney, Northern Beaches Christian School has had great success with its use of flexible learning spaces and has adopted the language of Nair, Fielding and Lackeny. Visitors to the school are told how these spaces evolved overtime to suit shifts in the ways their teachers taught and learners learned. The pedagogy of the school evolved overtime and this shift demanded new spaces to suit. A large financial investment without careful planning and preparation for how the new spaces will be embedded into the school’s learning platform is likely to result in spaces that are under utilised. 

Playful spaces that encourage students to engage with their environment in new ways

With the adoption of new learning spaces come new opportunities for student learning. With choice should come an understanding of the choices that are made. Research has shown that the nature of the space can have an effect on the way we learn at a neurological level. Spaces full of noise and movement suit learning that is goal oriented in which the learner has a clear direction and understands how to get there. The brain responds to this environment in specific ways and the architecture of the brain in this environment is well suited to this mode of learning. This is why we are able to get certain tasks done effectively when listening to loud music but it also explains why this environment is not well suited to tasks requiring more open ended, reflective and creative thinking. In the loud environment the brains architecture is like a metaphorical mountain range with steep valleys according to Claxton and Lucas writing in ‘New Kinds of Smart’, sticking to the valleys allows us to traverse the pathways to completing a task quickly and with focus. At other times in a calm environment the brain is in what they call ‘Meadow Mode’ where a metaphor of a brain with flatter open spaces illustrates a more meditative style with open pathways for connecting ideas and big picture thinking. Understanding that the spaces we are learning in can affect the brains mode of operating is essential. What we want is for our students to have a range of spaces to choose from and the ability to explain why they are choosing one space over another. Spatial metacognition should become a skill for learners as they are empowered to select and even organise spaces to suit their learning. 

Whimsical Cave Spaces from Google Zurich offices

Lastly the way that we organise our spaces is only part of the discussion of how the learning environment shapes the learning that occurs within it. How we decorate these spaces has a significant impact too. Traditionally learning spaces, particularly in Primary schools are adorned with lovingly completed works of the students interspersed with carefully selected motivational phrases or images. These displays say a lot about what schools value; that is finished and near perfect pieces of work. This model is being challenged and schools are finding success in using their wall spaces as a combination of planning and ideational space that shows works in progress alongside tips and strategies that can be applied to learning; ideas generated by the students as they reflect on their learning. The wall spaces become an extension of the student’s exercise books and digital devices onto which the students arrange ideas as they evolve to be shared and commented on. If a school values a Growth Mindset this use of displays spaces goes a long way to reinforcing the belief that learning is messy and requires hard work with mistakes and revisions on the way.

A space to inspire young imaginations, this one in an Alabama Resort, not a school.

Undoubtedly the new learning spaces bring a fresh level of excitement to schools and students quickly fall in love with the options and the playfulness they offer. The challenge for schools is to avoid the lure of shiny new toys and ensure that the adoption of flexible spaces is part of a bigger shift in thinking that includes effective pedagogies and supports for teachers who will be using the new spaces.

by Nigel Coutts

Essential Reading:

Nair, P., & Fielding, R. (2005). The language of school design. [Minneapolis, Minn.]: DesignShare.

Nair, P. (2014) Blueprint for Tomorrow: Redesigning Schools for Student-Centered Learning. Harvard Education Press 

The Third Teacher: 79 Ways You Can Use Design to Transform Teaching & Learning by OWP/P Architects, VS Furtniture, and Bruce Mau Design

Lucas, B., & Claxton, G. (2010). New kinds of smart. Maidenhead, England: Open University Press.

Curriculum - The messy field of education

After a long and happy life a teacher passes away but due to a disappointing clerical error stands before Beelzebub ready to hear what fate awaits in eternity. ‘You shall create a curriculum’ cries the dark lord. ‘It will capture the mood of the people, utilise all that we understand about education and learning, it will prepare students for an unknown future, provide teachers with clear guidance on what they should teach but will not be too lengthy, overcrowded or disempowering. It will be simultaneously coherent and flexible ensuring every child receives the same individualised education that they are entitled to. This single document will meet the needs of the government, industry and both religious and special interest groups while appearing entirely apolitical. It will save the nation from poverty, create economic stability and bring unity and cohesion. Once complete it will be the subject of ongoing review and criticism and you will be singularly blamed for every child who slips through the gaps, every despondent teacher and at the next election your work will be replaced by an entirely new curriculum that is in every respect exactly the same as yours.'

It is a wonder that anyone would ever want to be involved in writing a curriculum. 'Curriculum is a contentious and messy field’ wrote Jackson in the ‘Handbook of research on curriculum’ in 1992 and since then there have been few changes for the better. Today the curriculum of any nation seems to be under increased pressure and faces demands that cross state and national boundaries. Ken Robinson has described the effect that international tests such as PIRLS (Progress in International Reading Literacy Study) and the high profile PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) have had on education. These tests bring with them the opportunity for nations to compare their educational systems in ways that did not easily exist in the past.  With these international tests has come a realisation that some educational systems perform better than others and as the go to response of governments is either curriculum reform or teacher blaming it is no surprise that we are seeing a movement to reimagine the curriculums that will guide our students into their future.

But curriculum is a messy field and making changes to it carries risks; it is easy to get it wrong and the evidence so far from national Curriculums developed in recent times is that this is what is happening. Tim Oates in 2011 wrote a comprehensive review of the National Curriculum in England the title of which left little doubt about his thoughts on the subject, ‘Could do better: using international comparisons to refine the national Curriculum in England’. According to Oates the need for review was quickly identified and a process of introspection became the norm 'This introspection was perpetuated by rapid recognition of the need to review the National Curriculum in the face of obvious curriculum overload – it was simply too big’  (Oates 2011 p 124). Oates goes onto argue that the response should have been to look to high-performing international systems for guidance. Had England done this they may have noticed that much of the success of these high-performing systems came not from the curriculum in a traditional sense but from a commitment to providing a coherent curriculum through highly competent teachers. ‘A well-defined and enhanced National Curriculum is a necessary but insufficient condition for ensuring that the performance of the English system approaches that of the leading nations – policy needs to be formulated in respect of other ‘control factors’ such as teacher expertise, teaching quality, learning materials and inspection.’ (Oates 2011 p 143)

What is striking from Oates’ review of the English National Curriculum is his focus on the changes required to the system and not just the curriculum. 'Greater problems will most likely be created by expecting too much of a National Curriculum’. The poster child of recent years in education is an example of a nation that has achieved success not through isolated or short lived changes but through long running systemic shifts. As Oates identifies much of Finland’s current success is due to the changes introduced there in the 1960s. Moving to a teacher population where a Master’s degree is the norm is not a change that may be introduced quickly and while this improvement in teacher quality was underway tight controls were put in place. Borrowing pieces of the Finnish system will not ensure transferable results. 

There parallels with the Australian National Curriculum are also apparent in Oates’ writing. In the foreword to Oates’ article reviewing the then two decade old English National Curriculum there is mention that Australia is looking to modernise its curriculum offering. The process of developing the Australian National Curriculum has been led by ACARA (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority) as the body which writes the national curriculum which is then implemented by Sate and Territory bodies such as BOSTES (Board of Studies, Teaching and Educational Standards). To date syllabus documents have been implemented for English, Mathematics, Science & Technology, History (compulsory in 2016) and Geography (compulsory in 2017). Despite the reality that only parts of the new curriculum have yet been implemented there are already calls for review.

Most recently the Federal Minister for Education, Christopher Pyne has called for the curriculum to be trimmed, criticising its present form as overcrowded. Only weeks after its release to schools in New South Wales the Geography syllabus is to be merged with the also new History syllabus and yet to be seen syllabus for Civics & Citizenship and Economics into one Social Science syllabus if Mr Pyne has his way. More than just addressing the overcrowding the Education Minister has called for a review of what is taught particularly in the area of History where according to the Sydney Morning Herald reporter Matthew Knott ‘When Mr Pyne announced the review he said he wanted the curriculum to be more "balanced", including a greater focus on the benefits of western civilisation and the teaching of Anzac Day.’ This all leaves one wondering what schools should be teaching from at present and how far they should proceed with implementing a soon to be revised syllabus. However, the submission to the recent ACARA led review of the curriculum by BOSTES NSW provides a level of confidence in the curriculum as it stands ‘Future curriculum development processes by ACARA should recognise and respect the legislative imperatives within jurisdictions and lessons learned by the Australian Curriculum process.’ and 'In addition, as previously indicated, ACARA does not have a recognised status with schools in NSW regarding curriculum content.’ 

Both the National Curriculum of England and Australia are indicative of curriculum as content heavy documents that indicate what should be taught. Against this view of curriculum is that originated in the writing of Freire in ‘Pedagogy of the oppressed’ dating back to 1970. Freire and other proponents of ‘critical pedagogy’ indicate problems inherent in the curriculums resulting from the neoliberal tradition which overemphasises the utility of education to industry and societal norms. Geraldine Ditchburn of Murdoch University argues that while the Australian curriculum overtly appears egalitarian, pragmatic, positive and defensible it is based on an assumption that 'that content is constructed according to a checklist, intended to be digested by all in one stage, without revisions or refinements’ (Ditchburn 2012 p353), 'that curriculum is a mono-dimensional process where decisions about what should be taught are separate from how they should be taught and to whom’(Ditchburn 2012 p355) and ‘that the curriculum is being designed separately from the audience for whom it is intended.’ (Ditchburn 2012 p356).  Ditchburn suggests an alternate model for curriculum development that while enticing may do little to tidy the field but is a model worth pondering.

An alternative narrative, however, begins not with global dictates, but with the needs, lives and experiences of students. This is its starting and end point. It values democracy and as a result, accommodates and encourages participation, voice and agency; it understands curriculum knowledge as an immanent construct emerging from the lives, experiences and uncertainties of students who live in diverse worlds; and it supports teachers to be critical risk takers who are encouraged to explore how to construct knowledge and make meaning for themselves and their students. (Ditchburn 2012 p358)

Oates, T. (2011). Could do better: using international comparisons to refine the National Curriculum in England. Curriculum Journal, 22(2), 121-150. 

Ditchburn, G. (2012). The Australian curriculum: finding the hidden narrative?. Critical Studies In Education, 53(3), 347-360.

Schools as Learning Platforms

In technology circles the importance of the ‘platform’ is important and well understood. The companies that have had the most success in recent times are those that have become the platforms upon which great ideas are built. But what would it look like if a school imagined itself as a ‘platform’ in this model? What opportunities would this offer and how might this model serve the needs of those at the heart of all schools, the learners. 

Tech giant Google is seen by Jeff Jarvis as the poster child for companies in the new economy. Jeff is a Professor of Journalism at City University of New York and tech writer behind ‘Buzz Machine’ and host of podcast 'This Week In Google'. In his book ‘What would Google Do?’ Jarvis (2009) wrote 'The most successful enterprises today are networks - which extract as little value as possible so they can grow as big as possible – and the platforms on which those networks are built’. Large companies are easily seen as platforms in that they provide the resources and services others need, but Google and other tech giants bring a new meaning to the word ‘platform’, these companies allow anyone to build value on top of what they provide. The success of Google comes not only because of the products that they have developed but out of the services created because of the services they offer and share. Take Google Maps as one example: 

In the old architecture and language of centralized, controlling businesses, Google Maps would be a product that consumers may use, generating an audience that Google could sell to advertisers. That’s if Google wanted to stay in control. Instead, Google handed over control to anyone. It opened up maps so others could build atop them. (Jarvis 2009) 

There are many mapping services but they have not gained the level of success that Google Maps has had, partly because they are not backed by Google but also because the myriad of uses that the users of Maps have created were not made possible. Facebook has had similar success and for similar reasons. For game developers, musicians, artists, photographers, bloggers, restraints, hotels the world, Facebook is the platform that creates a community and allows third-parties to develop upon it. Facebook’s API (application programming interface) which allows developers to create content provided through the service, its plugin environment, mobile platform and authentication services allow companies to both add value to Facebook while growing their own business on the back of its success. The importance of this role as a platform for developers is reflected in Facebook’s shift in approach to rapid change from ‘Move fast and break things’ to ‘Move fast with stable infrastructure’.  

For schools the obvious parallel is that they serve a community of learners and that the community is better served when all members of the community are involved in the learning process. Successful schools will build connections with their community and allow learning to extend beyond the classroom into the supposed ‘real world’. (Schools that do this well will most likely have stopped referring to ‘the real world’, as the boundary between the two has disappeared.) For learning to occur outside of the classroom in real ways, their needs to be a consideration of the partnerships which may evolve. The wide community has many resources that schools may benefit from, including access to resources and expertise not available in schools. Situated learning is but one model to be applied where students for example learn in a commercial lab or workshop and so see their classroom learning applied in less theoretical ways. A very effective example of this is CSIRO’s Scientist and Mathematicians in Schools programme that connects schools with expert practitioners in these disciplines. 

Linking the community to the school in a ‘platform’ model must also bring tangible benefits to the community beyond suitably educated graduates. Looking inwards the skills and resources inside of schools offer the community valuable resource. From a pool of highly trained educators, manager and leaders to a diverse set of physical resources adaptable to community resource schools have must to offer. Establishing a learning community with the school as a platform allows for a free flow of ideas between the education sector and others, adding value for all in the process. NoTosh is the ideal model of an education based company that has done this taking their expertise into industry and building connections that allow them to bring expertise back to education, a true ‘win win’ for all. 

While very nice these community connections fall short of a school as a ‘platform’. For this to happen the school would need to see itself as a platform upon which others can build. The immediate option here is to connect with educational service providers. Schools rely heavily on the resources developed by publishers but often find that they do not quite meet their needs. The feeling is often that the best resources are those crafted in house to meet the particular needs of the learners and of the programme of learning for which they are crafted. If a school sees itself as a ‘platform’ and finds value in open sharing of ideas then it will begin to share its programmes widely and bring in learners from beyond its walls. Further as other schools and communities of learners take the programmes developed by a ‘platform’ thinking school and share back their modified programmes a pool of ideas is developed. Jarvis adds his voice to this discussion 'There’s no reason my children should be limited to the courses at one school; even now, they can get coursework online from no less than MIT and Stanford.’ A school that sees itself as a platform would see the value in openly sharing what it does and in accessing resources from all manner of places.  

With the school as a ‘platform’ in the community with diverse connections into and out of the school new opportunities may be explored. The students of the school may not be those who physically attend the school. Courses may be offered through the school that serve other needs identified within the community. A philosophy programme that includes adults as thinking members of the community, technology classes for the community delivered by students or by students working with industry experts, writing classes that bring many budding authors together across location and age. Schools obviously have particular expertise in the areas of cognition, mindsets, thinking strategies and habits of mind that are readily transferred into non-school settings. When these programmes and dispositions are enhanced and informed by strategies not typical of a school environment such as design thinking and systems management new opportunities are exposed. The school as ‘platform’ would encourage programmes to be developed in school for the community and within the community for the school as occurs for Facebook and Google. At some point the school shifts from being a place you go to during set hours and years to the ‘platform’ on which your personal and social learning is built. 

There are challenges on the horizon for schools but also opportunities. The role of schools within society is important but may require a degree of adjustment and fine-tuning if they are to maximise the benefits they bring to their communities. Change is inevitable and schools can choose to wait for it or look to get in front of it by innovating on their strengths and finding the opportunities available. To give Jeff Jarvis the concluding words 'Indeed, education is one of the institutions most deserving of disruption – and with the greatest opportunities to come of it.' 

Jarvis, J. (2009). What would Google do? New York, NY: Collins Business.

By Nigel Coutts

Learning and Cognitive Load - Part Two

Read Part One

The fundamental understanding of Cognitive Load Theory is that there exists a limit upon our cognitive capacity and that once we exceed that capacity our ability to learn is impeded. This limit is a construct of our ‘working memory’ which can be shown to have limits on the number of items it may contain and the length of time for which items are retained without renewal. For permanent learning to occur we must move items from this working memory into our long-term memory that for all reasonable purposes is limitless and permanent. As a group of professionals who are interested in learning how we may ensure our students are functioning within the limits of their cognitive load, how we may maximise the efficiency of this transfer to long-term memory is of great relevance.

As a theory to explain the relationship between our mental capacity and learning the history of cognitive load theory has its roots in the 1979 research of Moray who put forth concepts of mental load. By 2003 when Mac-Donald published his ideas on the topic the concept had been expanded and models from the world of computing provided useful metaphors. Working memory was equated with a computers random access memory (RAM) and long-term memory with hard drives and discs (or at the time possibly tapes or even punch-cards) Mac-Donald fostered the notion that mental workload is more than just the quantity of processing required for a task and that we need to consider the nature of the tasks and the interactions between elements.  Mac-Donald included aspects specific to the individual learner such as their ‘self-schemas for learning’ and the perceived relevance of the task; ideas not typically included in contemporary models of Cognitive Load Theory. The present model is largely a result of John Sweller and his collaborators and is referred to as the ‘Triarchic model of Cognitive Load Theory’.

The triarchic model identifies three cognitive loads that impact the efficient formation of schemas. Extraneous cognitive load are those not directly required to master a task and have a negative impact on schema formation, reducing these is desirable and can be achieved through efficient design. Intrinsic cognitive load is that which is inherent in the task and for the most part cannot be reduced. Tasks with high intrinsic cognitive load are by nature more complex for an individual and in the long term are managed through equally complex schema. Germane cognitive load refers to the mental resources devoted to the efficient formation of schemas and is seen to have a positive effect on learning. In any task it is desirable to have sufficient load available for handling germane cognitive load as this will result in learning through the formation of schemas in long term memory. 

Intrinsic Load is that which is inherent to the task at hand and is generally considered to be irreducible by adjustments to instructional methods. When we are first engaging with a concept and have limited relevant schemas to draw upon the intrinsic load of a task will however be higher than we have experience to draw upon. An example may help to describe how this works. Imagine the task of learning a new language. To begin with each word is a new piece of information that requires processing within working memory. If the language uses a set of symbols that are new to you, each symbol will require processing. The lack of relevant schemas for the building blocks of this new language mean that the intrinsic cognitive load will be large and a sensible instructor will aim to present you with small chunks. As you develop schemas you are able to move from letter sized chunks to words and sentences and with time the size of each chunk that you deal with expands. The intrinsic load in this instance is managed by understanding the size of the chunks that may be dealt with but there is a limit to how a task may be broken down and maintain relevance. 

The language task above is useful as an illustration but it can be misleading too as it partly confuses intrinsic and extraneous loads. Intrinsic Load is best seen as the cognitive load required for a task as it is presented or as it must be dealt with. 'Intrinsic load can, therefore, be estimated 'by counting the number of elements that must be considered simultaneously in order to learn a particular procedure" (Plass, Moreno & Brunken 2010) Solving a mathematical problem will involve multiple elements being processed simultaneously and reducing the number of elements is not always appropriate or possible. As experience is gained and appropriately complex schema are formed the intrinsic load of many tasks will reduce as the multiple elements of the task come to be seen as one. When we first learn to drive we are faced with a task comprised of multiple elements that must be dealt with simultaneously in working memory, the intrinsic load is high. As our skills develop and our experience grows we move from driving as a task with multiple elements to the automated application of relevant schemas accessed from our long term memory and intrinsic cognitive load is reduced.

Learning to drive is an effective model for understanding the part played by Extraneous Load. When we are first learning to drive and the intrinsic cognitive load is high our progress is rapidly stopped by unexpected circumstances. A new intersection, higher than usual traffic volume, a different vehicle or distracting passenger can all be enough to trigger cognitive overload. While such distractions are often unavoidable they each bring a cognitive load that is extraneous to the task of driving. This extraneous cognitive load is the rationale behind banning the use of mobile phones by drivers. Extraneous cognitive load is that which is not essential to the task or is added by the manner in which the task is designed or presented. For the teacher understanding how the design of a task can add to extraneous cognitive load and thus inhibit learning is essential.

One element that may add to extraneous cognitive load is the manner in which information is presented particularly when multiple modes of presentation are combined. This is a key piece of the design of instructional presentations that can be managed by aware educators to reduce extraneous cognitive load. In 2008 Richard Mayer presented five principles of multimedia presentations that would reduce extraneous processing and thus cognitive load. Mayer recommends for the reduction of extraneous material such as the removal of irrelevant stimulus materials not directly relevant to the task (coherence). Mayer uses the example of a video about lightning interspersed with sensational clips of lightning. The added video while exciting to watch was found to distract the learner from the core learning. Highlighting of essential material to draw attention and focus to what is most important to the task may reduce extraneous cognitive load when it is not possible to remove distracting items (termed ‘signaling').  Not doubling up on written text and narration as is common when a presenter reads a PowerPoint slide to an audience while expecting them to read along or by adding subtitles in the same language as the audio was found to add to extraneous cognitive load. (Mayer refers to this as ‘redundancy'). Placing words and images in close relation to each other so that the connection is clear and the user does not need to search or even shift their gaze between the two items reduced extraneous cognitive load (termed 'spatial contiguity'). The largest effect Mayer discovered was from simultaneous presentation of visuals, animations or video with verbal narration (temporal contiguity). Having learners watch a film and then listen to an explanation of its content would add to extraneous cognitive load according to Mayer’s temporal contiguity theory. 

In the triarchic model of Cognitive Load Theory the third influence is Germane Cognitive Load and while adding to the overall load it has a positive effect on learning. Germane Cognitive Load is that which results from dedicating resources to the formation of schemas. As the formation of schemas is the goal of learning and their effective use reduces cognitive load dedicating mental resources to their efficient formation increases the efficiency of learning. In theory reduction in extraneous load achieved through effective instruction design should free cognitive resources that then become available for application towards intrinsic and germane cognitive load. Assuming an appropriate overall cognitive load any resources not occupied by intrinsic cognitive load or wasted on extraneous cognitive load should be automatically devoted to germane cognitive load and subsequent schema formation.

A metaphor for cognitive load theory if the task is to move only the wheelbarrow.

Strategies that are germane to the formation of schemas may have a positive effect on learning. Such strategies may include the use of mnemonics, metacognitive strategies and reflective practices. 'Self-regulated learners are able to set more specific learning goals, use more learning strategies, better monitor their learning, and more systematically evaluate their progress toward learning goals than their counterparts' (Boekaerts, 2006 cited in Plass, Moreno & Brunken 2010). Used appropriately such strategies should speed the formation of schemas associated with the learning task while not placing excessive cognitive load on the learner. Care in the use of such strategies is called for however. When learning musical notes the use of a mnemonic such as F.A.C.E. for the letter names of notes in the spaces of the treble clef may assist a novice but requiring an expert to recall this as they play could hinder performance. A similar effect has been observed in mathematics where students are required to show working. For many mathematicians this habit breaks a complex multistep problem into manageable steps each with its own schema. For some advanced mathematicians such a requirement hinders performance, as they are utilising schemas that allow them to manage even such complex equations as a single chunk. 

The Habits of Mind identified by Costa and Kallick provide dispositions which may maximise what we achieve with our Germane Cognitive Load and thinking routines can provide useful strategies - http://www.rediquest.com/

There is much still to be understood about cognitive load and the formation and use of schemas. As we increasingly value the ability to quickly learn, unlearn and relearn, understanding how the process of schema formation and reformation occurs is of increased value. Does the inclusion of problem solving tasks, thinking strategies, critical reflection and creative processes result in schemas that are more flexible and suitable for adaptation to new learning than more traditional methods? How might our increasing understanding of neural plasticity inform our understanding of how the brain forms and makes use of schemas? How might the use of learning scaffolds influence schema formation and reuse for learning in new scenarios? What are the strategies employed by efficient learners in the process of schema formation and in what ways might their schemas differ from those created by less efficient learners? Understanding these things will allow us to more effectively target our efforts as learners and teachers ensuring the cognitive load theory has a valuable role to play.   

This introduction to ‘Cognitive Load Theory’ is intended for educators as a basic introduction only. If you wish to explore the mechanics of this further I suggest you begin by reading ‘Cognitive Load Theory’ edited by Jan L. Plass, Roxana Moreno and Roland Brunken

‘Cognitive Load Theory’ edited by Jan L. Plass, Roxana Moreno and Roland Brunken

Plass, J., Moreno, R., & Brünken, R. (2010). Cognitive load theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mayer, Richard E. "Applying the Science of Learning: Evidence-based Principles for the Design of Multimedia Instruction." American Psychologist 63.8 (2008): 760-69.